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i 


CATTLE  FEEDING 


WITH 


SUGAR  BEETS,   SUGAR,   MOLASSES 


AND 


SUGAR   BEET  RESIDUUM 


BY 

LEWIS  S.  WARE, 

EDITOR   "THE  SUGAR   BEET,"   AUTHOR  OF  "SUGAR   BEET  SEED."  ETC. 

FELLOW   OF   L'ECOLE   CENTRALE   DES   ARTS,  MANUFACTURE*   ET   AGRICULTURE,  PARIS 

MEMBER  PHILOSOPHICAL   SOCIETY;   ASSOCIATION   DES   CHEMISTK>: 

A>-i.tCIATION  UES  CHEMISTE.S  BELGE,  ETC.,  ETC..  ETC. 


ILLUSTRATED 


PHILADELPHIA  BOOK  CO., 

PRACTICAL.  SCIENTIFIC  AND  TECHNICAL    BOOK: 
15  SOUTH  NINTH  STREET. 
1902. 


Main       . 
ic  Dept 


COPYRIGHT  BY 

PHILADELPHIA  BOOK  CO. 
1902. 


PRINTED  AT  THE 

\VICKERSHAM  PRINTING  HOUSE, 

53  and  55  North  Queen  Street, 

LANCASTER,  PA.,  U.  S.  A. 


AGRIC. 

UBBAfiY 


DR.  HARVEY  W.  WILEY, 

CHIEF  CHEMIST  OF  THE  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  WASHINGTON,  D.  C., 

MY  FRIEND  AND  CO-WORKER, 

WHO   DURING   THE  PAST  TWENTY  YEARS 

HAS    GIVEN    HIS    OFFICIAL    AND    SCIENTIFIC    SUPPORT 

TOWARD  THE  PRACTICAL  REALIZATION  OF  THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  THE 

BEET-SUGAR    INDUSTRY   INTO   THE   UNITED   STATES, 

THIS  WORK  IS  RESPECTFULLY  DEDICATED  BY 

THE  AUTHOR. 


260275 


PREFACE. 


THE  author  for  many  years  past  has  felt  convinced  that  the 
future  success  of  the  American  beet  sugar  industry  would 
depend  upon  the  introduction  of  certain  principles  of  economy 
that  are  not  entirely  in  accordance  with  our  customs.  The 
utilization  of  waste  is  an  issue  that  always  appeals  to  countries 
where  labor  is  cheap  and  the  struggle  of  life  is  hard.  In  the 
United  States  it  is  only  within  the  past  two  years  that  any 
serious  attention  has  been  given  to  feeding  the  residuum  cos- 
settes  to  cattle  or  finding  some  use  for  the  molasses  remaining 
after  the  campaign  has  ended.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that 
a  large  number  of  the  European  beet  sugar  factories  would 
have  long  since  ceased  to  exist  had  the  resuluums,  pulp  and 
molasses  not  been  sold  and  thus  become  the  sole  money  returns 
for  the  investors.  In  years  when  general  prosperity  prevails 
this  income  is  that  much  more  to  be  added  to  the  general  profits 
which  frequently  during  a  single  campaign  reach  a  total  of  80 
per  cent,  on  the  invested  capital. 

In  1874  when  the  beet  sugar  agitation  in  the  United  States 
was  begun,  not  a  single  acre  was  planted  in  beets  and  no  beet 
sugar  factory  was  working  in  this  country  ;  the  seeds  imported 
were  distributed  in  many  states  and  the  resulting  beets  were  ana- 
lyzed. There  remained  on  the  farmers'  hands  several  tons  of 
beets  which  had  at  first  to  be  paid  for  out  of  the  personal 
pocket  of  the  writer:  it  was  urged  that  a  reasonable  trial  be 
given  to  these  roots  for  feeding  purposes  ;  this  was  done,  and 
excellent  results  followed.  Subsequently,  the  seeds  of  many 
varieties,  which  were  gratuitously  distributed,  had  no  difficulty 
in  finding  some  willing  tillers  to  give  them  a  fair  trial.  This 
led  to  solutions  of  difficult  issues  among  farmers  who  had  fur- 
nished beets  to  several  of  the  early  Canadian  beet  sugar  fac- 

(v) 


VI  PREFACE. 

lories,  when  the  inferior  quality  of  the  beets  caused  their 
refusal  at  the  factory  ;  discouragement  followed  and  many  of 
the  farmers  cancelled  their  contracts  and  turned  their  attention 
in  other  directions.  It  was  not  long  before  it  was  realized  that 
while  $4.00  to  $5.00  per  ton  could  not  be  obtained  at  the  factory 
for  roots  testing  less  than  10  per  cent,  sugar,  on  the  other  hand 
for  feeding  purposes  they  would  be  worth  at  least  $3.50  as 
shown  by  the  increase  in  milk,  butter,  etc.  Some  farmers  have 
gone  so  far  in  this  direction  as  to  devote  a  certain  area  to  beets 
every  year  since  that  time,  while  the  Canadian  factories  that 
were  working  in  1883  have  now  ceased  to  exist.  During  the 
interval  of  twenty  years  sugar  beets  have  continued  to  be  fed 
with  excellent  results  in  certain  districts  of  Canada.  In  the 
United  States  root  feeding  to  cattle  is  not  as  general  as  it  should 
be  and  the  farmers  have  thus  wasted  an  opportunity.  Gen- 
eral information  in  regard  to  pulp  feeding  has  been  wanting, 
so  it  was  considered  urgent  to  visit  most  of  the  European  farms 
and  examine  the  question  on  the  spot,  and  this  present  volume 
has  been  the  result  of  that  investigation.  Of  recent  years  in 
Continental  Europe  molasses  feeding  to  cattle  has  gained  in 
popularity.  All  the  available  documents  on  the  subject  in  both 
French  and  German  have  been  consulted  and  the  practical  re- 
sults where  this  residuum  has  been  regularly  fed  have  been  per- 
sonally observed.  Sugar  may  be  had  at  such  a  low  figure  that 
it  is  interesting  to  examine  just  within  what  limit  it  also  may 
be  used  for  cattle.  The  theory  of  cattle  feeding  and  requisites 
for  success  as  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  the  leading 
German  authorities  such  as  Wolff  and  Ku'hn,  have  been  studied 
in  detail,  also  the  theories  of  many  of  the  French  savants  upon 
the  same  subject.  As  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington  and  the  numerous  experiment  stations  of  the 
country  have  devoted  considerable  time  to  cattle  feeding,  their 
publications  have  been  consulted  and  from  them  certain  conclu- 
sions have  been  drawn  that  are  not  always  in  strict  accordance 
with  the  theories  of  some  of  their  experts.  The  results  of  the 
writer's  personal  practical  experience  is- also  given  in  these  pages. 
As  many  technical  terms  are  used  there  is  given  as  Part  VI  a 
special  chapter  of  definitions  and  technical  considerations, 


PREFACE. 


which  enables  any  person  without  special  scientific  training  to 
thoroughly  understand  the  entire  question  discussed.  The  main 
ohject  in  view  is  to  prevail  upon  farmers  to  use  either  sugar 
beets,  sugar,  or  sugar  beet  residuum  in  its  varied  forms;  by  so 
doing  they  will  have  within  their  reach  a  source  of  profit 
hitherto  ignored, 

L.  S.   WARE. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 
GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  ON  CATTLE  FEEDING. 

PAGE 

Former  modes;  The  cow  formerly  considered  of  secondary  importance  in 
general  agricultural  economy;  Forage  for  cattle  on  the  average  Euro- 
pean farm;  Kesults  realized  not  commensurate  with  the  outlay 1 

Present  modes;  Work  of  the  agricultural  chemist  and  of  the  chemists  con- 
nected with  the  sugar  factories;  Hay  as  the  standard  of  the  nutritive 
value  of  forage  in  general;  Constituents  of  fodder;  Constituents  for  the 
production  of  muscular  tissues 2 

Direct  action  in  the  formation  of  fat;  Additional  factor  towards  the 
supply  of  non-nitrogenous  substances;  Standards  of  feeding;  Nutritive 
value  of  the  nitrogenous  substances;  How  the  best  results  are  obtained.  3 

Importance  of  fat;  Role  of  cellulose;  Importance  of  salt;  Eole  of  water...       4 

Variable  ration;  Most  advantageous  condition  for  the  utilization  of  the 
nutritious  elements  of  a  forage;  Facts  to  be  remembered  in  fattening  of 
live  stock;  Hygienic  conditions;  Temperature  of  the  stable;  Order 
of  meals o 

Importance  of  regular  feeding  for  cows;  Production  of  milk;  Eation  for 
working  animals:  Eations  for  stall-fed  animals 6 

Conclusions;  How  fodders  may  be  made  as  profitable  to  farmers  as  the 
cultivation  of  cereals;  Special  advantages  offered  by  the  beet;  Negative 
results  of  stall-feeding;  Advantages  of  the  pulp  combination  in  the 
animal  ration 7 

Eesults  obtained  in  feeding  scrub  cattle  with  cossettes  misleading 8 


PART   FIRST. 

FEEDING  AND  FATTENING  YOTTNG  STEERS  AND  CATTLE. 

Theoretical  considerations  relating  to  the  formation  of  fat;  Principal 
groups  of  nutrients  from  which  the  fat  is  derived;  Determination  of  the 
problem  how  domesticated  ruminating  animals  store  up  fat 

Kiihn's  experiments  in  reference  to  the  percentage  of  fat  furnished  in 
fodder  which  is  deposited  in  the  body;  Examinations  as  to  the  influence 
of  carbohydrates  on  the  formation  of  fat;  Origin  of  the  fat  formed; 

(ix) 


X  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Effect  of  too  much  water  in  fodder;  Influence  of  the  ambient  tempera- 
ture of  the  stable;  Importance  of  the  size  of  the  body 10 

Bleeding  animals  to  be  fattened;  Explanation  of  the  influence  of  carbo- 
hydrates on  the  production  and  deposit  of  fat;  What  is  shown  by  the 
general  laws  for  the  formation  or  production  of  flesh  and  fat 11 

Theoretical  considerations  respecting  flesh  formation ;  Early  experiments 
having  in  view  the  production  of  flesh;  Amount  of  protein  decomposed 
from  the  body  when  the  ration  has  been  properly  combined;  Protein 
needed  to  sustain  life  in  a  normal  condition  of  health 12 

Effect  of  salt  in  reasonable  amounts;  Methods  for  economizing  the  quan- 
tity of  albumin  so  as  to  obtain  the  maximum  meat  production;  Stoh- 
mann's  experiments;  Effect  of  an  addition  of  sugar  in  the  shape  of 
molasses  or  beet  pulp  to  fodder 13 

Consumption  of  carbohydrates  by  ruminating  animals;  General  outline  of 
the  requisites  for  the  practical  and  theoretical  feeding  and  fattening  of 
young  cattle  and  steers;  Wrong  impression  as  to  feeding  semi-starved 
animals  upon  rations  consisting  of  beet-sugar  factory  residuum  products 
combined  with  other  forages 14 

Difficulties  contended  with  and  experiments;  Object  of  the  consumption 
of  food  before  a  growing  animal  is  weaned;  Soxhlet's  experiments; 
Feeding  calves  after  being  weaned  15 

Wrater  and  its  consumption  by  steers;  Daily  weighing;  Varied  feeds 
recommended;  Essentials  in  fattening 16 

Requisites  for  success;  Duration  of  the  fattening  period;  Advantages  of 
sugar-beet  residuum;  Requisites  for  successful  fattening;  Importance 
of  forcing  animals  to  eat  the  greatest  possible  amount;  Periods  of  feed- 
ing   17 

Standards  during  the  various  periods  of  feeding;  Success  depends  upon 
practical  experience 18 

Average  cost  for  one  pound  increase  in  live  weight;  Money  advantages  of 
beet  residuum;  Needs  for  shipping  facilities;  Preparations  for  shipping 
fattened  steers;  Precautions  in  the  use  of  salt  in  steer  feeding  19 

Essentials  for  success;  Comforts  for  the  steer  to  be  fattened;  Prof.  Henry 
upon  this  subject;  Feeding  growing  steers 20 

Idea  of  the  progress  of  the  fattening  to  be  obtained  from  the  droppings; 
Prof.  Henry  on  this  subject;  Milch  cow  feeding;  General  remarks 21 

Combination  of  concentrates  with  roughage;  Capacity  of  the  milch  cow  to 
adapt  itself  to  varied  feeding;  General  interest  in  the  question  of  feed- 
ing milch  cows 22 

Amount  of  milk  a  cow  should  yield;  Dairying  based  on  maternity  of  the 
cow,  explained  by  Prof.  Henry;  Two  sorts  of  milch  cows 23 

Considerations  about  milk  and  milking;  Difference  in  the  quantity  and 
composition  of  milk;  Influence  of  the  time  of  milking  upon  the  com- 
position and  quality  of  the  milk;  The  true  and  only  basis  for  the  sale 
of  milk  24 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PAGE 

Calving  cow,  and  its  needs;  Calf  feeding;  Artificial  means  a  mistake 25 

Eations  and  feeds;  Use  of  cob  meal  and  corn  in  preference  to  whole  ear 
corn;  Advantages  of  certain  cotton-seed  meals;  Influence  of  feeds  upon 
butter  and  milk 26 

Influence  of  certain  feeding  stuffs  upon  the  flavor  of  butter;  Importance 
of  the  influence  of  inorganic  substances  on  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
milk;  Henneberg  and  Stohmann's  experiments  27 

Influence  of  fodders  upon  the  flavor  of  milk;  Theoretical  considerations; 
Elimination  of  milk  from  the  blood;  Elaboration  of  milk  from  the 
colostrum  28 

What  milk  in  reality  is;  Importance  of  the  composition  and  size  of  the 
milk  glands;  Abnormal  development  of  the  udder  not  a  sure  indication 
of  the  possibility  of  an  abundant  flow  of  milk 29 

Advantages  of  albumin;  Amount  of  digestible  protein  needed;  Effect  of  an 
increase  in  the  amount  of  fat  of  a  ration  on  the  flow  of  milk;  Wolff*  on 
this  subject 30 

Experiments  ©f  Kiihn  and  of  Weiske;  Essentials  for  successful  dairying; 
Shelter,  and  its  importance;  Amount  of  air  required  31 

Comfort  and  ease  for  the  cow;  Stables;  Breed  and  kind  of  cow;  Cows 
should  have  a  trial;  Continued  attention;  Kindness  32 

Feeding;  Time  of  feeding;  Successful  cossette  feeding;  Excessive  feeding; 
Difficulties  in  feeding 33 

Stable  feeding  and  exercise;  Feeding  with  a  view  of  butter  production; 
Feeding  according  to  records;  Question  of  labor 34 

Bacteria;  Water  in  feeding;  Influence  of  water  upon  food  consumption  ...     35 

Influence  of  water  on  protein  consumption;  Water  drunk  and  its  influence.     36 

Effect  of  water  when  given  in  excess;  Loss  of  water  per  diem;  Diarrhoea 
caused  by  excessively  diluted  rations;  Essentials  of  good  water;  Salt  ...  37 

Mistake  in  starting  a  dairy;  Co-operative  methods;  Calculation  of  rations 
for  milch  cows;  Preliminary  remarks 38 

Manurial  value  of  the  droppings;  Difference  in  opinion  as  to  standard 
rations 39 

Composition  of  one  hundred  rations  for  dairy  cows  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States;  Requirements  of  American  cows  as  compared  Avith 
European  40 

The  standard  adopted;  Advantage  of  the  use  of  special  tables  for  com- 
puting rations  for  farm  animals;  Faulty  rations 41 

Composition  of  ration  Xo.  1,  fed  to  California  dairy  cows;  Composition  of 
ration  Xo.  2,  fed  to  California  dairy  cows 42 

Manner  of  calculating  a  ration;  Composition  of  suppositions  ration  for 
dairy  cows 43 

Modification  of  above  ration;  Further  modification  of  above  ration 44 

Sheep  feeding;  General  considerations;  Impulse  to  sheep  raising  in  the 
United  States  given  by  beet  pulp  utilization 45 

Importance  of  having  the  ewes  well  looked  after;  Advantages  of  com- 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

parative  breed   tests;    Mistake   of   shearing   during   feeding;    Craig's 

experiments 46 

Surprising  results  in  sheep  fattening;  Beet  cossettes  and  the  wool;  Sheep 

characteristics 47 

Kequisite  feeding  space  and  other  essentials;  Prof.  Henry's  views 48 

Importance  of  sheep  selection;  Sheep  fattening  49 

Oats  as  a  ration;  Lands  for  pasturage  suited  to  sheep;  Winter  feeding 50 

Health  of  a  sucking  lamb;  Weaning  lambs 51 

Feeding  working  animals;  Theoretical  considerations;  Voit's  experi- 
ments; Hanneberg's  experiments  upon  sheep 52 

Function  of  protein;  Equivalents  for  100  parts  of  fat 53 

Production  of  muscular  energy  by  albumin  in  the  fodder;  Facts  to  be  con-' 
sidered  in  the  production  of  work;  Causes  of  gouty  and  rheumatic  ten- 
dencies    54 

Production  of  work  from  foods,  and  Sanson's  results  in  this  direction 55 

Working  oxen  and  cows;  Ration  of  an  animal  doing  work 56 

Rations  in  general;  General  remarks;  Variation  in  the  daily  ration  with 

the  ambient  temperature 57 

Standards;  Basis  of  all  standard  rations 58 

Variation  in  standards;  Variation  in  ration  59 

Appetizing  rations;  Distribution  of  rations  60 

Commercial  value  of  fodders;  All  existing  modes  of  estimation  of  value 

very  empirical;  Money  mode  of  valuation 61 

Difference  in  the  nutritive  money  value  as  admitted  in  the  United  States 

from  that  adopted  by  Kiihn;  Purchasing  feeds 62 

Rules  proposed  by  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station;  Cost 

of  rations 63 


PART  SECOND. 

FEEDING  BEETS  TO  CATTLE. 

Preliminary  remarks;  Advantages  of  a  succulent  ration  with  corn 64 

Preparation  of  beets  before  feeding;  Steaming  or  cooking 65 

Vertical  and  horizontal  section  of  Leduc's  beet-steaming  pits;  Steaming 

process  combined  with  fermentation  66 

Arrangement  of  the  pits  and  detail  of  chimney 67 

Advantages  of  a  reasonable  fermentation 68 

Maceration  and  its  object;  Comparative  experiments;  Beets  and  pulp 

compared 69 

Experiments  upon  sheep;  Sugar-beets  and  mangels  compared  70 

Comparison  of  Tankard  and  sugar-beets 71 

Comparative  increase  in  weight  of  sheep  fed  with  Tankard  and  with 

sugar-beets;  Size  of  root  for  cattle-feed  72 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

PAGE 

Plant  food  taken  up  by  mangels  and  sugar-beets 73 

Sugar-beets  compared  with  rutabagas;  Comparative  analyses  of  a  rutabaga 
and  a  sugar-beet 74 

Efforts  to  create  a  semi-sugar-beet;  Comparative  yields  of  forage  and 
semi-sugar-beets  75 

Green  corn  fodder  vs.  sugar-beets  for  cattle  feed;  Green  corn  ensilage; 
Exhausting  effects  of  green  corn  upon  the  soil 76 

Plant  food  absorbed  by  one  ton  of  sugar-beets  and  green  corn;  Plant  food 
absorbed  to  the  acre  by  ten  tons  of  beets  and  twenty  tons  of  green  com.  77 

Large  and  small  beets  in  cattle  feeding 78 

Sugar-beets  more  profitable  than  clover-hay  for  cattle-fodder;  Experi- 
ments in  feeding  beets  to  cows  and  sheep  in  the  United  States;  Prelimi- 
nary remarks;  Great  changes  in  the  existing  dairying  process  by  the 
introduction  of  the  sugar-beet  79 

Dr.  Goessmann  on  sugar-beet  feeding;  Statement  emanating  from  the 
Pennsylvania  State  College  Experiment  Station  80 

Comparison  of  corn  silage  and  roots  for  milch  cows 81 

Corn  silage  and  clover  silage  vs.  sugar-beets;  Wisconsin  experiments  in 
feeding  sheep 82 

Relative  value  of  silage  and  field  beets  in  the  production  of  milk;  Experi- 
ments at  the  Ohio  experiment  station 83 

Silage  r.s.  beets,  showing  teed  refused 84 

Total  milk  produced,  and  gain  and  loss  in  weight 85 

Average  daily  yield  of  milk  with  and  without  beets  in  ration.  Ohio 
station.  1890.. 86 

Cost  of  harvesting,  siloing,  etc.,  per  acre  of  beets  and  of  corn;  Consump- 
tion of  dry  matter  by  cows  fed  on  beets  and  on  silage;  The  problem  of 
fattening  an i mals 87 

Comments  on  the  Ohio  experiments;  Comparison  between  potatoes  and 
beets  88 

Results  obtained  by  feeding  a  short-horn  cow  and  a  Holstein  heifer  on 
beets;  Results  obtained  by  feeding  a  short-horn  cow  and  a  Jersey  heifer 
on  potatoes 89 

Difference  between  beet  butter  and  potato  butter;  Other  experiments  to 
determine  the  value  of  potatoes  and  roots  for  fattening  lambs 90 

Comparative  results  obtained  by  feeding  lambs  with  potatoes,  beets  and 
mangels;  Results  of  experiments  made  to  determine  the  relative  value 
of  sugar-beets  for  steers  and  sheep 91 

Comparative  feeding  value  of  silage,  beets  and  mangels  for  cows;  Experi- 
ments to  determine  the  effect  of  different  rations  in  fattening  lambs 92 

Comparison  of  cost  of  grain  per  100  Ibs.  with  roots,  and  without  roots; 
Comparative  experiments  with  siloed  cossettes  and  forage  beets;  Feed- 
ing sugar-beet  leaves  and  tops;  Preliminary  remarks 93 

Composition  of  beet  leaves  and  tops  according  to  Dr.  Herzfeld 94 

Beet -leaf  stripping 95 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Early  feeding  and  mistakes  made;  Harvesting  the  crop  of  beet  leaves  and 

tops;  Average  crop  to  the  acre 96 

Value  of  beet  leaves  and  tops;  Beet-leaf  keeping 97 

Composition  of  beet  leaves  siloed  in  two  ways;  Methods  of  compressing 

the  leaves  in  the  silos 98 

Transformation  in  silos  and  losses;  Analysis  of  siloed  beet  leaves,  accord- 
ing to  Stutzer 99 

Efforts  to  hasten  lactic  acid  fermentation;  Faulty  siloing;  Leaves  and 

other  substances  in  silo  100 

Beet  leaf  siloing  in  Germany;  Grouven's  experiments  in  siloing  leaves; 

Changes  which  take  place  in  the  tops 101 

Soft  leaf    fodder;   Postelt's  method;    Beet-leaf  washing;  Lehmann  and, 

Maercker's  method  for  soured  leaves  102 

Acidulated  beet  leaves;  The  Mehay  method 103 

Beet-leaf  drying,  and  its  advantages  104 

The  Crummer  dryer;  Buttner  and  Meyer  dryer 105 

Vibrans'  objections  to  this  method 106 

Wusterhagen  dryer;  Various  modes  of  beet-leaf  keeping 107 

Proebent's  experiments  in  beet-leaf  drying  109 

Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  beet-sugar;  Beet-leaf  feeding 110 

Pri ester's  experiments;  Objections  to  beet-leaf  feeding Ill 

Oxalic  acid — its  influence ; 112 

Zuntz's  experiments;  Gaspari's  conclusions  and  recommendation 113 

Conclusions  respecting  beet-leaf  feeding;   Results  obtained  in  Germany....  114 
Relation  of  beet  to  leaf  composition;  Saline  elements  taken  from  the  soil 
and  contained  in   beet   leaves;    Experiments  in  which  cows  were  fed 

upon  beet  leaves 115 

Surprising  results  in  feeding  milch  cows  with  beet  leaves;  Money  value 
of  beet  leaves  and  tops;  Economical  advantages  of  the  utilization  of  beet 

leaves 116 

Feeding  seed  stalks  and  seed 117 


PART   THIRD. 

CHAPTER  I. 
FEEDING  FRESH  AND  SILOED  SUGAR  BEET  RESIDUUM. 

Early  appreciation  of  the  value  of  sugar-beet  residuum  cossettes;  Objec- 
tion to  its  use 118 

Manner  of  using  residuum;  Diffusion  cossettes;  In  what  diffusion  consists.  119 

The  main  object  of  the  sugar  manufacturer;  Composition  of  diffusion 
cossettes  as  they  leave  the  diffusion  battery 120 

Sugar  left  in  the  residuum;  Excess  of  water;  Desirability  of  eliminating 
the  water  of  diffusion  pulps;  Dripping  and  straining  121 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAGE 

3;  Objection  to  excessive  pressure  122 

Losses  during  pressing;  Diversity  of  data;  Experiments  of  Stammer  and 

of  Classen 123 

Results  obtained  by  Friihling  and  Schultz;  Analysis  of  beet  residuum 
before  and  after  preparation;  The  Klusemann  press,  illustrated  and  de- 
scribed    l'J4 

Selwig  and  Lange  cone  pulp  press,  illustrated  and  described 127 

Advantages  claimed  for  the  conical  cossette  press 130 

Daily  delivery  of  3-cone  cossette  presses  of  varying  dimensions;  The  Ber- 

green  press,  illustrated  and  described 131 

Lallouette  press,  illustrated  and  described 134 

Care  needed  during  pressing;   Pressing  facilitated    by  heat;    Modes  for 

facilitating  pressing 136 

Maercker's   mode   of  working;    Siekel's   process;    Muller's   proposition; 

Theory  of  the  Manoury  method  137 

Mixing  of  lime  with  the  cossettes;  Scheermesser5 s  method;  Pulp  or  cos- 
sette contracts 138 

Value  of  sugar-beet  cossettes 139 

Conveyance  of  cossettes  to  farms;  Importance  of  keeping  the  residuum 

clean 140 

Changes  when  exposed  to  the  air;  Not  to  be  fed  alone  to  live  stock;  Feed- 
ing value  of  cossettes;  Importance  of  adding  lime  141 

Phosphoric  acid  to  be  added;  Beet  cossettes  in  cattle  feeding;  Fattening 

of  sheep  with  beet  cossettes  in  the  United  States 142 

How  to  feed  beet  pulps;  Dangers  of  feeding  beet  pulps 143 

Advantage  of  the  saturation  of  pulps  with  alcoholic  vapors;  Beet  pulp  - 

disease;  Most  objectionable  pulps .  144 

Maladies  due  to  decomposed  or  mildewed  cossettes;  Use  of  soured  cos- 
settes; Conclusions  as  to  dangers  of  cossette  feeding 145 

Pulp  malady  a  comparatively  new  fad  among  scientists;  Osteomalacia  and 

its  causes 146 

Feeding  with  the  view  to  production  of  milk  and  butter;  Synopsis  of  ex- 
periments made  bearing  on  this  question 147 

Continued  feeding  with  cossettes;  Klein's  observations 148 

Excessive  feeding;  Water  in  beet  pulp 149 

Mistake  to  feed  frozen  cossettes;  Eations  for  working  oxen;  Mode  of  stall- 
feeding  oxen  for  the  market  on  Austrian  farms 150 

Eation  for  bulls  on  an  Austrian  farm;  Eations  for  live  stock  in  general, 
as  used  in  France;  Eations  for  sheep;  Eations  for  mules  and  horses; 

Eation  for  pigs  151 

Simon  Legrand's  ninety-four  day  experiment  in  feeding  diffusion  pulp  to 

cattle;  Mixing  cossettes  with  other  fodders 152 

Eations  for  milch  cows  recommended  by  Eisben  153 

Increase  in  the  milk  production  when  soured  cossettes  are  used  154 

Digestibility  of  residuum  cossettes;  Cossettes  as  food  for  man  155 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Cossettes  as  food  for  game;  General  remarks;  What  residuum  cossettes 
feeding  means  in  Germany;  Siloing  residuum  cossettes;  Silos  for 
reducing  cossettes  156 

Size  of  silos  recommended  by  Pellet  and  Lelavandier 157 

Characteristic  odors  of  butter  made  from  rnilk  of  pulp-fed  cows;  Bottom 
paving  of  silos 158 

Filling  silos  with  beet  cossettes  159 

Coverings  for  the  top  of  silos;  Advisability  of  obtaining  the  best  results  in 
cossette  keeping;  Transformation  during  siloing 160 

Sacrifice  by  organic  transformation  or  putrefaction;  Percentage  of  organic 
acid  cossettes  may  contain;  Temperature  which  the  cossettes  should 
reach '•••  161 

Transformation  of  the  nitrogenous  substances;  Nutritive  value  of  the 
amides;  Percentage  of  anhydrous  carbonic  acid  in  the  gases 162 

Principal  centers  for  change  in  silos;  Early  chemical  changes  during 
siloing  (Maercker) 163 

Chemical  changes  during  prolonged  siloing  (Petermann)  164 

Decrease  in  the  number  of  cattle  in  Germany  during  the  Franco-Prussian 
war  in  1870;  Digestibility  of  nitrogenous  substances  for  soured  and  for 
fresh  cossettes 165 

Liebscher's  observations  on  the  reduction  of  losses;  Mixing  chopped  straw 
with  the  cossettes 166 

Mixing  the  pulp  with  molasses;  Mixing  the  residuum  with  some  anti- 
septic; Surface  siloing;  Simple  surface  siloing  illustrated  and  described.  167 

Surface  siloing  using  lumber,  illustrated  and  described;  Silo  formed  by 
excavating  hillside,  illustrated  and  described  168 

Wood-built  silo,  illustrated  and  described 169 

Dug-out  type  of  silo,  illustrated  and  described 170 

Underground  type  of  silo,  illustrated  and  described 172 

CHAPTER  II. 

DRIED  RESIDUUM  COSSETTES. 

Early  efforts  in  drying  cossettes;  Prize  offered  for  a  dryer;  Objections  to 

using  dried  cossettes 173 

The  principal  promoters  of  dried  cossettes;  Limit  of  pressing 174 

Liming  before  drying;  Hot  diffusion  facilitates  pressing 175 

The  Pfeiffer  compressed-air  mode   for  employing  the  diffusors;   WTaste 

gases  for  drying 176 

Utilization  of  lost  heat  for  drying;  Rational  appliances  led  to  poor  results.   177 

The  Mackensen  dryer,  illustrated  and  described  179 

The  Petry -Kecking  dryer,  illustrated  and  described  180 

The  Buttner  and  Meyer  dryer,  illustrated  and  described 181 

Temperature  of  cossettes  being  dried  184 

Complete  drying  unnecessary;  Regulating  the  dryer  186 


CONTEXTS.  XV 11 

PAGE 

Practical  working  of  a  dryer;  Formula  for  the  calculation  of  the  efficiency 
of  a  cossette  dryer,  proposed  by  Rydlewski;  Objectionable  feature  of 

dryers  187 

Analysis  of  fresh  and  dried  pulp  according  to  Brunehaut;  Cost  of  plant...   188 

Steam  drying;  Steam  dryer,  illastrated  and  described 189 

The  Thiesen  dryer;  The  Heckmann  dryer;  Composition  and  appearance 

of  the  dried  residuum;  Average  composition  of  dried  cossettes 191 

Comparative  analyses  of  dried  cossettes  and   hay;  Comparison  between 

siloed  and  dried  cossettes  192 

Active  elements  of  fermentation  193 

Advantages  of  dried  cossettes  for  feeding:  Heat  needed  to  evapo rate  water 

drunk  194 

Vogel's  experiments  with  sheep;  Utilization  of  the  force  developed  by  the 

heart;  Results  showing  the  influence  of  the  excessive  water  absorbed  ...  195 
Influence  of  water  in  ration  on  milk  and  weight  of  cows;  Dried  cossettes 

more  hygienic  than  the  siloed  196 

Dried  cossettes  more  readily  handled  than  the  fresh  or  siloed;  Mineral 

substances  in  the  dried  cossettes 197 

Conservation  of  dried  cossettes;  Change  during  keeping 198 

Digestibility  of  cossettes:  Relative  digestibility  of  fresh,  dried,  and  siloed 

cossettes  199 

Redtiction  in  the  -nutritive  value  of  cossettes  by  keeping;  Morgen's  ex- 
periments upon  the  digest ibility  -of  nitrogen;  Precautions  in  feeding 

eossettes  200 

Complications  caused  by  feedkig  eossettes 201 

Quantity  of  dried  cossettes  to  be  fed;  Experiments  in  feeding  different 
kiivds  of  cossettes;  Composition  of  milk  from  cows  fed  on  fresh  or  dried 

cossettes  202 

Comparative  nutritive  value  of  rations  varied  by  addition  of  different  beet 
products;  Comparative  analysis  of  milk  given  when  .different  beet  pro- 
ducts were  fed 203 

Three  experimental  rations  fed  to  oxea 204 

Results  of  experimental  rations;  Experimental  rations  fed  to  six  cows 205 

Experimental  rations  fed  to  ten  sheep 207 

What  is  demonstrated  by  Maercker  ami  Morgen's  experiments:  Beneficial 

effect  on  horses  fed  with  cossettes 208 

Actual  economy  in  feeding  dried  cossettes;  Rations  for  live  stock 209 

CHAPTER  IIL 

EARLY  PREJUDICE  nr  THE  UXITED  STATES  AGAINST  FEEDIN-G  CATTLE  AVITH 
SUGAR-BEETS  ANP  RESIDUUX  COSSETTES. 

American  experience  in  diffusion  pulp  utilization;   Difficulty  the  Maine 

Beet  Sugar  Company  had  to  contend  with;  Utilization  of  potato  pulp.   210 
Annoying  prejudices  against  pulps  and  beets  in  the  Northern  States 211 


XV111  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Ignorance  of  certain  officials 212 

Discrimination  against  sugar-beet  refu.se  by  the  Minnesota  Legislature; 

Comments  by  the  Minneapolis  Journal  213 

Lead  in  sugar-beet  pulp;  Extract  from  Bulletin  No.  74  of  the  Utah  Ex- 
periment Station 214 

Successful  introduction  of  pulp  feeding  in  the  United  States;  Early  ex- 
periments at  Chino;  Mr.  Gird's  experiments 215 

Experiments  at  Oxnard 217 

Experiments  at  Watsonville,  Cal 218 

Conclusions   of  the   California   Experiment   Station;    Messrs.  Jaffa   and 

Leroy  Anderson  on  cossette  feeding 219 

Satisfactory  results  of  cossette  feeding  in  California ..  220 

Agitation  of  the  subject  of  feeding  beet  pulps  in  Nebraska 221 

Experience  at  Grand  Island,  Nebraska;  Experience  at  Ames,  Nebraska.  222 
Remarks  on  silos  by  Mr.  Allen;  Experiments  of  the  Standard  Cattle  Co.  223 

Mr.  Allen  on  feeding  pulp  to  cattle 224 

Conclusions  of  the  Michigan  Experiment  .Station 226 

Experiments  at  the  Pearl  farm 227 

Cossette  drying  in  Michigan  and  special  appliance  for  that  purpose 228 

Experience  in  New  York 229 

Experience  in  Utah,  New  Mexico,  Oregon,  Minnesota,  Colorado,  Iowa...  23C 


PART   FOURTH. 

CHAPTER  I. 

MOLASSES  FOR  FEEDING. 

Early  experiments  in  molasses  feeding 232 

General  use  of  molasses  for  feeding  in  Germany;  Increasing  popularity  of 

molasses  feeding  in  Austro-Hungary 233 

Possibilities  of  molasses  feeding  in  France;  Molasses  utilization  one  of  the 

essentials  for  profitable  sugar-making 234 

Importance  of  molasses  utilization  in  the  United  States;  Rivalry  among 

manufacturers  of  molasses  forages 235 

Composition  of   molasses;    Albumen  not  contained  in  molasses;    Varied 

opinions  respecting  the  value  of  amides 23C 

Substances  other  than  amides  and  their  influence;    Beneficial  effects  of 

molasses  feeding  .  237 

Physiological  action  of  sugar  and  hydrocarbons 238 

Manner  of  feeding  molasses;  Milch  cow  feeding  with  molasses 231 

Favorable  effect  of  molasses  on  the  production  of  milk 24( 

Experiments  in  the  fermentation  of  milk;  Molasses  for  feeding  horses; 

Experiments  by  L.  Grandeau 241 


CONTENTS.  XIX 

PAGE 

Work   performed    by    horse?,    molasses  being   fed;   Jorss'    experiments; 

Molasses  feeding  for  broken-down  horses 243 

Advantages  of  molasses  fodders  for  working  horses;  Sheep  feeding  with 

molasses;  Steer  feeding  with  molasses 244 

Influence  of  molasses  combinations  upon  the  ultimate  quality  of  the  meat.  245 

Pig  feeding  with  molasses 246 

Pernicious  effects  of  molasses  feeding 247 

Nutritive  value  and  variations  of  molasses;  Evident  beneficial  effects; 

Practical  comparative  experiments  in  molasses  feeding  in  France 248 

Experiments  in  Germany 250 

Varied  molasses  combinations;  Molasses  forages 251 

Desirable  limits  in  molasses  feeding  252 

Varying  molasses  rations  for  different  animals;  Money  value  of  molasses.  253 
Classification  of  molasses  feed;  Diluted  and  combined  molasses  for  feeding.  254 

Diluted  followed  by  concentrated  molasses  for  digestible  forage 255 

Eamm's  investigations  of  feeding  milch  cows  with  liquid  molasses 256 

Hoppe  on  the  question  of  molasses  feeding  .  257 

CHAPTER  II. 
MOLASSES  COSSETTE  COMBINATIONS. 

Cossettes,  fresh  and  dried,  mixed  with  molasses  for  cattle  feeding;  Aver- 
age composition  of  this  forage 258 

Molasses  cossette  preparation  in  diffusion  battery;  Xatanson's  method; 
Molasses  and  dried  cossettes  in  combination 259 

Analyses  of  molasses  and  dried  cossette  combinations;  Increase  of  weight 
from  the  start  by  feeding  this  forage;  Dried  cossettes  and  molasses 
better  than  pressed  cossettes  and  molasses 260 

Early  experiments  with  peat  molasses  feeding;  Composition  of  a  forage...  261 

Peat  and  molasses  better  than  bran  and  molasses;  Possible  intestinal  com- 
plications through  peat-molasses  feeding 262 

Digestibility  of  peat 263 

Difference  in  opinion  as  to  the  value  of  peat-molasses  feeding;  Conclusions 
as  to  the  value  of  peat-molasses  feeding 264 

Composition  of  the  Toury  peat-molasses  combination;  Example  of  a  prac- 
tical ration  for  horses 265 

Varied  peat-molasses  combination;  Feeding  peat  molasses  to  horses  266 

Feeding  peat-molasses  to  milch  cows;  Working  oxen  and  cattle  fed  with 
peat-molasses 267 

Pigs  fed  with  peat-molasses:  Oat  flour  and  molasses  combination;  Wheat- 
molasses  combinat ion 268 

Corn  germs  and  molasses  compared  with  corn  feeding ;  Wheat-bran 
molasses  compared  with  corn  germs  269 

Bran  and  molasses  combination;  Bran  compared  with  peat;  Moss-molasses 
combination...  ..  270 


XX  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Facilitation  of  the  absorption  of  the  by-fodder  and  molasses  by  boiling 

water;  German  patent  for  preparing  molasses  fodder 271 

Glucose  and  rice  flonr  combination;  Feeds  sprinkled  with  molasses  and* 

heated  underpressure 272 

Peanut-shell  molasses  combination;  Composition  of  peanut  shells 273 

Composition  of  peanut   shells   combined  with  residuum   beet   molasses; 

Practical  test  of  the  ration 274 

Combination  for  horses  adopted  at  Toury;  Hay,  straw  and  molasses;  Ex- 
periments with  sheep 275 

Eamm's  experiments;  Molasses  and  straw  combination 276 

Potato  pulp  and  molasses;  Brewers'  grains  and  molasses  ..  277 

Palm  oil  cake  molasses  combinations 278 

Two  analyses  of  palm  oil  and  molasses  combinations 279 

Blood-molasses  combinations  and  its  composition 280 

Possibilities  of  blood-molasses  combinations;  Action  of  molasses  as  an  anti- 
septic; Discovery  of  the  disinfecting  action  of  molasses 281 

Method  of  preparing  blood-molaeses  combinations;  Composition  of  blood- 
molasses  combination;  Use  of  varied  absorbents 282 

Analyses  of  three  blood-molasses  combinations;  Elimination  of  fibrin 283 

Two  analyses  of  blood-molasses  combinations  (fibrin  eliminated);  Feeding 

horses  with  blood-molasses;  Feeding  cows;  Feeding  pigs 284 

Feeding  to  animals  in  general;  Feeding  to  horses;   Extension  given  to 

blood-molasses  feeding;  Money  value  of  a  forage-molasses 285 

General   rations   of  blood-molasses ;    Preparation   of  the   blood-molasses 
fodder  on  the  farm  ;  The  Schrseder  apparatus ;  Difficulties  in  keeping 

blood-molasses  fodder 286 

Van iy  wheat  flour-molasses  combination,  and  its  preparation 287 

Preparation  of  solid  molasses;  Requisite  keeping  qualities  of  molasses......   288 

Dishonest  dealings  in  molasses 289 

Keeping  qualities  of  peat  molasses;  Manner  of  keeping  molasses  combina- 
tions in  general;  Molasses  forage  made  at  the  factory 290 

Practical  working  of  the  factory 291 

Molasses  combinations  made  at  the  farm 292 

Simple  appliances  for  mixing 293 

Analyses  of  various  molasses  rations;  Feeding  all  the  molasses  from  a 

given  area  of  land 294 

Various  uses  of  molasses 295 

Molasses  for  alcohol   manufacture;  Molasses  permits  the   utilization   of 

slightly  mildewed  or  tainted  feeds;  Molasses  as  a  fertilizer 296 

Analysis  of  molasses  feed   298 

Miiller's  method  of  analysis 299 

Emmerling's  method  of  estimating  the  nutritive  value  of  a  forage  made 
with  molasses  300 


CONTENTS.  XXI 

PAGE 

PART   FIFTH. 

FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR. 

Preliminary  remarks;  Chauveau's  theory  301 

Contrast  between  sugar  destruction  in  the  blood  during  rest  and  during 

work;  Practical  tests  upon  men    302 

Advantage  to  the  breeder;  Feeding  of  sugar  to  cattle  in  the  early  part  of 

last  century  303 

Early  arguments  for  feeding  sugar  304 

Experiments  in  sugar  feeding  upon  various  animals 305 

Original  argument  relative  to  cattle  feeding  in  very  hot  climates;  Practi- 
cal suggestions  in  early  discussion  on  cattle  feeding  with  sugar 306 

Early  opposition  to  oil  cake  feeding;  Pen  feeding  with  molasses  and  chaff.  307 
Questions  answered  by  Ed.  T.  Waters,  Esq.,  in  1809,  in  regard  to  his  ex- 
periments with  molasses  in  cattle  feeding  308 

Sugar  for  general  feeding  and  its  effect  upon  animals  309 

Complications  arising  from  sugar  feeding;  Feeding  sugar  to  calves 310 

Feeding  sugar  to  pigs 311 

Comparison  between  sugar  and  molasses;  Opinions  respecting  sugar  for 

pigs;  Special  sugar  combinations;  Economic  considerations   312 

Experimental  sugar  rations  for  bulls  and  heifers  313 

Influence  of  sugar  upon  milk;  Feeding  horses  with  sugar  314 

Experimental  rations  fed  to  horses;  Eesults  of  rations  as  to  work  and 

weight    315 

Difficulties  to  contend  with  in  European  sugar  feeding    316 

Feeding  standards;  Per  day  and  one  thousand  pounds  live  weight  317 

Per  day  and  head    318 

Table  for  computing  rations  for   farm  animals;  Digestive  nutrients  in 

stated  amounts  of  the  more  common  feeding  stuffs;  Soiling  fodder 319 

Hoots  and  tubers 320 

Hay  and  straw 321 

Grain   323 

Mill  products  324 

By-products 326 

Miscellaneous  substances  ..  328 


PART  SIXTH. 
DEFINITIONS  AND  TECHNICAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

Albuminoids;  Acidity;  Albumin;  Alkali;  Alkaline;  Alimentary  canal: 
Amids 331 

Anhydrous;  Anhydrous  sulphuric  acid;  Ash;  Asparagin;  Assimilation; 
Bacteria ;  Betain 332 


XX11  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Bolus;  Brewers'  grains;  Calcic  carbonate;  Calcic  phosphate;  Calorie; 
Carbohydrates;  Carbon;  Carbonates;  Carbonate  of  lime;  Carbonatation; 
Carbonize;  Carbonic  acid;  Carnivorous;  Casein;  Cellular  tissue;  Cel- 
lulose   333 

Centigrade  degrees;  Cereal  wastes;  Chlurids;  Chlorophyl;  Chyle;  Clovers; 

Coagulate;  Coefficient  of  digestibility  and  nutritive  relations  334 

Coloring    and   volatile   substances;    Concentrates;    Constituents    of   the 

animal's  body  336 

Nitrogenous  elements 337 

Non-nitrogenous  elements 338 

Corn  and  cob  meal;  Corpuscles;  Cotton  seed  meal;  Crude  fibre  340 

Cubic  meter;  Defecation;  Desiccation;  Digestibility;  Factors  governing 

digestibility 341 

Coefficients  of  digestibility  for  fodder  components  342 

Concentrated  feeds;  their  influence  upon  digestion 344 

Digestibility  of  crude  protein 345 

Coefficient  of  digestibility  of  protein;  Digestibility  of  carbohydrates  346 

Varying  digestibility  of  coarse  fodder  when  fed  with  roots;  Digestibility 

of  fatty  substances 348 

Best  proportion  between  fat  and  protein;  Digestibility  of  fibre 349 

Relation  between  digestibility  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  crude  fibre  and 

fat;  Digestibility  of  crude  cellulose  in  clover  351 

Digestibility  of  nitrogen-free  extract  as  determined  by  water  extraction; 

Digestibility  of  phosphoric  acid 352 

Digestibility  of  salt;  Digestibility  of  ash;  Digestion  of  cattle  in  general...  353 

Diffusion ;  Dried  cossettes 356 

Dry  matter;  Energy;  Ether  extract;  Fatty  substances 357 

Fermentation;    Fertilizers;   Fibrin;   Forage;   Fuel  value;  Gastric  juice; 

Germs;  Gestation;  Glucose;  Gluten  meals  and  gluten  feeds 359 

Glycogen;  Glycose;  Gram;  Gullet;  Gums;  Hectare;  Hemoglobin;  Herbi- 
vorous; Hydraulic  pressing;  Hydroscopic;  Intestines;  Invert  sugar; 

Kilogram;  Kilogramrneter 360 

Kilometer;  Lactic  acid;  Legumin;  Levulose;  Lime;  Lime  phosphate; 
Liter  ;  Lymph  ;  Lymphatic  ;  Meter  ;  Methane ;  Micro-organisms  ; 

Mucous;  Narrow  ration;  New  process  linseed  meal 361 

Nitrogenous  feeding  stuffs;  Nutrition  and  excretion  362 

Nitrates;  Nitrogen-free  extract;  Non-nitrogenous 366 

Non-sugar;  Nutritive  ratio;  Oil  meal;  Old  process  linseed  meal;  Omasom; 

Organic  matter;  Osmotic  action;  Oxalic  acid;  Paunch  367 

Pea  meal;  Pectic  substances;  Pentosanes;  Peptones;  Phosphates;  Phos- 
phoric acid;  Plant  foods;  Protein 368 

Potassic  salts;  Pressed  cossettes;  Proteids;  Pulps;  Radiation;  Ration; 
Recticulum;  Rennet  or  abomasom ;  Residuum;  Roughage;  Ruminants; 
Saliva;  Sacchorase 370 


CONTEXTS.  XX111 

PAGE 


Scums;  Serum;  Silos;  Sodic  chlorid;  Sour  cossettes;  Stalks  of  beet  seed; 

Starch;  Stimulants;  Sucrose 371 

Sugars-  Wheat  bran;  Wheat  middlings;  Wide  ratio;  Wheat  residuums...  372 
Index  .  373 


CATTLE  FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR, 
MOLASSES,  AND  BEET  RESIDUUM. 


INTRODUCTION, 
General  Considerations  on  Cattle  Feeding, 

IN  the  United  States,  as  in  most  countries  during  their  early  Fonaer  modes, 
development,  the  Cmv  was  considered  of  secondary  importance 
in  general  agricultural  economy.  However,  of  recent  years, 
through  the  researches  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the 
agricultural  experiment  stations  of  the  various  States,  great  pro* 
gress  has  been  made. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  not  many  years  since  cattle  in 
general  on  the  average  European  farm  were  kept  to  utilize  the 
waste  that  the  farmer  might  have  at  his  disposal  before  or  after 
harvesting  his  crops.  Consequently  live  stock  on  hand  received 
a  forage  that  was  the  outcome  of  the  crop  harvested,  without 
regard  to  whether  or  not  it  was  exactly  suited  to  the  animal  fed, 

For  a  long  period  of  years  the  question  of  feeding  animals 
with  the  idea  of  keeping  them  in  the  best  of  health  and  at  the 
same  time  fattening  them  for  the  benefit  of  the  owner  was,  to  a 
certain  extent,  a  problem  almost  unknown.  The  average  per- 
son had  some  ideas  concerning  the  digestive  and  assimilative 
processes  of  the  animal  being  !ed,  but  upon  general  principles 
it  may  be  said  that  these  ideas  were  erroneous.  Although  the 
quantity  of  feed  entering  the  daily  ration  was  increased,  its 
actual  cost  was  too  frequently  overlooked ;  consequently  the  re- 
sults realized  were  not  commensurate  with  the  money  outlay. 
Where  a  cow  was  formerly  fed  with  the  sole  idea  of  maintaining 
the  fertility  of  the  soil,  it  was  frequently  found  that  the  ultimate 
cost  of  such  a  fertilization  rendered  the  plan  far  from  remunei- 


2  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

ative.     In  this  country  it  is  the  exception  for  manures  to  be  the 
main  object  in  view. 

Present  modes.  At  the  present  day  all  these  uncertainties  have  been  set  aside 
by  the  rational  introduction  of  scientific  modes  of  feeding,  based 
upon  the  physiology  of  the  animal,  combined  with  strict  rules 
of  hygiene,  and  above  all  by  the  study  of  the  nutritive  value 
of  each  element  used. 

The  agricultural  chemist,  and  the  chemists  connected  with 
the  sugar  factories,  have  accomplished  this  work  almost  alone, 
struggling  against  the  routine  which  was  always  opposed  to 
these  results,  and  pointing  out  that  the  farmers,  controlled  by 
their  prejudices,  were  in  the  wrong.  They,  on  the  other  hand, 
declared  that  the  theoretical  man  was  announcing  or  enunciat- 
ing wrong  ideas  and  that  the  animal  itself  was  the  best  guide  as 
to  the  elements  that  his  daily  life  required.  However,  science 
has  triumphed  in  the  struggle. 

These  studies  have  related  to  the  transformation  of  forage  into 
fatty  substances,  into  muscles,  tendons,  flesh,  hair,  wool,  milk, 
urine  and  excrements.  They  furnish,  besides,  a  complete  study 
of  various  forages,  the  effects  of  which  one  could  almost  de- 
termine in  advance.  There  is,  however,  in  this  work  something 
lacking,  namely,  the  complete  individual  study  of  the  animals 
being  fed;  also  the  manner  in  which  the  special  product  being 
tested  is  assimilated. 

It  is  at  the  present  time  recognized  that  there  is  no  feed  that 
may  be  considered  universal,  that  is,  which  contains  all  the 
nutritive  elements  supposed  to  be  necessary  for  the  healthy 
maintenance  of  the  organism  of  animals.  Hay,  however,  comes 
nearest  the  ideal  forage,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  taken  as  the 
standard  of  the  nutritive  value  of  forage  in  general. 

Constituents  of  The  chemical  composition  of  a  forage  permits  one  to  ascertain 
fodders.  within  what  limits  the  proposed  results  may  be  obtained.  For 
example,  nitrogenous  constituents  are  for  the  production  of  pro- 
teid  substances,  and  consequently  the  muscular  tissues.  Dur- 
ing the  transformation  of  their  molecules  they  develop  a  cer- 
tain force  which  is  utilized  by  the  changes  which  occur  in 
the  body.  The  resulting  products  are  burned  through  the  inter- 
vention of  the  air  inhaled  through  the  lungs,  and  constitute 


STANDARDS    OF    FEEDING.  3 

what  is  in  fact  an  actual  heat.  Their  direct  action  in  the  for- 
mation of  fat  is  not  as  yet  satisfactorily  understood.  The  non- 
nitrogenous  substances  combine  with  the  excess  of  oxygen  re- 
maining after  the  combustion  of  the  products  of  dissimilation  of 
the  tissues,  and  these  also  give  animal  heat.  They  are  the 
substances  which  form  the  fat. 

If  the  quantity  of  nitrogenous  substances  is  greater  than  is 
necessary  to  make  good  the  losses  of  the  tissues,  and  if  the 
quantity,  of  non-nitrogenous  substances  is  greater  than  that 
which  has  been  burned  by  the  oxygen  absorbed  by  the  blood, 
what  remains  is  deposited  as  adipose  tissue.  The  transforma- 
tion of  nitrogenous  substances,  in  cases  of  insufficiency  in  the 
supply  of  non-nitrogenous  substances,  becomes  a  source  of  sup- 
plementary heat,  and  thus  forms  an  additional  factor  towards 
the  supply  of  the  non-nitrogenous  substances,  which  have  been 
deficient;  then  follows  a  carbonation  when  brought  in  contact 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  blood,  instead  of  forming  muscular  tis- 
sues, which  is  their  real  function. 

If  one  accepts  the  standards  now  generally  admitted  for  Standards  of 
nitrogenous  substances,  their  nutritive  value  is  3.5  times  supe-  feeding, 
rior  to  that  of  the  non-nitrogenous  substances,  and  such  being 
the  case  one  can  readily  understand  the  mistake  made  in  fool- 
ishly wasting  material  that  is  in  reality  of  great  value  in 
obtaining  the  result  which  it  is  possible  to  realize  at  less  expense 
with  the  non-nitrogenous  substances.  Under  all  circumstances 
animals  should  receive  a  proportion  of  nitrogenous  and  non- 
nitrogenous  constituents,  such  that  the  substances  requisite  for 
the  production  of  heat  shall  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  as  it  is 
only  then  that  these  constituents  can  perform  the  work  asked  of 
them  in  the  repair  of  the  waste  of  muscular  tissues.  The 
amount  of  non-nitrogenous  substances  should  be  sufficient  to 
produce  the  fatty  tissues  besides  exercising  other  valuable 
functions. 

The  excess  of  nutrients  which  may  be  utilized  in  either  of 
these  ways  is  eliminated  from  the  body  without  any  benefit  to 
it.  The  best  results  are  obtained  in  giving  to  an  animal  the 
greatest  amount  of  dry  matter  that  can  be  assimilated,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  minimum  limit  of  nutritive  substances 


4  FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR   BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

eliminated  without  benefit  is  secured  and  the  digestive  faculty 
of  the  stomach  is  not  reduced.  All  non-nitrogenous  substances 
have  for  their  object  the  maintaining  of  the  heat  of  the  animal's 
body,  which  heat  would  otherwise  be  produced  at  the  expense 
of  the  proteid  substances.  Under  circumstances  of  judicious 
feeding  there  follows  an  economy  rather  than  an  expenditure  of 
the  nitrogenous  substances. 

Importance  of       The  fat  has  for  its  special  object  the  increase  of  the  adipose 
fat>        tissues;  it  increases  the  assimilation  of  other  nutrients  and  is  an 
indispensable  element.     As  for  the  cellulose — its  principal  ob- 
Role  of      ject  is  to  give  to  nutrients  the  consistence  requisite  for  the 
cellulose,     intestinal  assimilation  of  the  animals  to  which  it  is  fed.     Fur- 
thermore, according  to  Tollens,  it  contributes  to  nutrition  and 
ie  first  transformed  into  pentosanes,  which  ma\7  be  assimilated 
by  the  organism.     The  proportion  of  these  substances  should 
be  suited  to  the  case  under  consideration  in  order  to  obtain  a 
good  digestion  and  consequently  a  satisfactory  assimilation,  and 
also  in  order  to  have  a  profitable  fattening  and  How  of  milk,  as 
well  as  the  maximum  of  work,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Importance  of  Salts  have  the  object  of  fortifying  the  bony  tissues  and  repair- 
salt.  jng  fae  losses  of  the  body.  They  furthermore  render  elements 
in  general  more  palatable.  Ordinary  salt,  for  example,  in- 
creased in  reasonable  proportions,  will  be  most  acceptable  and 
agreeable.  It,  moreover,  plays  an  important  role  as  an  assimi- 
lating element,  and  has  an  important  influence  on  the  exterior 
appearance  of  animals  in  general.  Hulwa  recommends  that 
cattle  consuming  considerable  quantities  of  residuum  cossettes 
from  beet-sugar  factories,  have  lime  added  to  their  daily  rations; 
it  may  be  given  as  chalk  or  in  other  forms,  about  20  to  40 
grains  for  each  horned  animal,  but  only  10  grams  to  swine. 

Role  of  water.  The  bodies  of  animals  in  general  represent  at  least  two-thirds 
water  which  is  used  for  the  transfusion  of  the  nutritive  elements 
through  the  entire  organism.  It  constitutes,  consequently,  an 
important  factor  in  the  assimilation.  An  excess  of  water  is 
deleterious,  as  it  increases  the  heat  of  the  body,  owing  to  its 
evaporation  through  the  lungs  and  the  skin.  It  is  probable 
that  this  excess  increases  the  heart's  action.  Under  all  circum- 
stances it  has  an  influence  on  the  assimilation  and  dissimilation 


HYGIENIC   CONDITIONS.  O 

of  the  proteid  substances  of  the  organism  and  may  result  in  a 
dropsical  transformation  of.  the  cellular  tissues. 

The  most  advantageous  condition  for  the  utilization  of  the  Variable  ration, 
nutritious  elements  of  a  forage  is  realized  when  one  gives  to 
cattle  an  average  ration.  Too  small  a  quantity  of  these  ele- 
ments has  the  effect  of  diminishing  the  accumulated  reserve  in 
the  organism.  In  cases  of  excess  they  are  eliminated  and  are 
found  in  the  excrements. 

When  one  has  in  view  the  fattening  of  live  stock  it  is  im- 
portant not  to  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  animals  under  con- 
sideration should  first  of  all  be  in  a  condition  favorable  for  the 
repeated  assimilation  of  albumin  and  fatty  substances  and  their 
subsequent  deposit  in  the  form  of  flesh,  muscle  and  fat.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  it  is  desirable  under  all  circumstances  that 
cattle  to  be  subsequently  fed  upon  a  ration  of  any  kind  should 
undergo  a  sort  of  preliminary  diet  leading  up  to  the  standard 
ration  that  they  are  ultimately  to  receive.  This  should,  in 
most  cases,  continue  for  a  period  of  weeks  before  the  standard 
fattening  substances  are  given  in  which  the  proportion  of  nitro- 
genous to  non-nitrogenous  elements  is  superior  to  that  which 
the  actual  feeding  in  view  demands.  The  substances  to  be 
given  in  a  fodder  should  be  taken  according  to  their  prices  upon 
the  local  market;  but  under  all  circumstances  one  should  make 
allowance  for  the  composition  of  the  product  used,  as  otherwise 
the  result  obtained  would  not  be  compatible  with  the  resulting 
money  returns  from  such  feeding.  Upon  general  principles  it  is 
recommended  that  the  feeding  begin  with  a  smaller  quantity  of 
the  fodder  than  one  wishes  the  animal  subsequently  to  eat;  this 
to  be  in  excess  of  what  it  has  hitherto  been  accustomed  to  re- 
ceive. A  too  frequent  change  in  the  composition  of  a  ration  has 
certainly  a  very  deleterious  effect  upon  animals  in  general. 

It  is  above  all  very  important  that  the  hygienic  conditions  Hygienic  condi- 
should  not  be  overlooked  and   that  these  be  adapted  to  the       tions. 
animals  fed.     The  temperature  of  the  stable  should  be  main- 
tained at  12  to  20  degrees  C.  (53.6°  to  68°  R).     It  is,  further- 
more, essential  to  see  that  the  order  of  the  meals,  three  at  lesst 
per  diem,  shall  be  the  most  desirable,  as  far  as  the  general  health 
of  the  animal  is  concerned,. 


6  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,   ETC. 

Importance  of       Milk,  for  instance,  is  not  a  simple  separation  from  the  blood: 

regular  feeding  it  is  produced  at  certain  stages  of  the  animal's  existence  and 

for  cows.     on]v  then.     It  is  the  outcome,  so  to  speak,  of  the  dissolution  of 

the  udder  itself,  and  it  is  the  function  of  the  forage  to  repair  the 

losses  which  the  organism  undergoes,  hence  the  reason  why  the 

consistence  of  the  forage  should  he  appropriate  to  the  work  it  is 

to  accomplish  and  why  it  should  be  continued  with  regularity. 

Nitrogenous  constituents  will  constantly  and  repeatedly  renew 
the  cells  of  the  udder,  which  are  mainly  made  up  of  nitrogenous 
substances.  The  albuminoids  should  consequently  combine  as 
soon  as  possible  with  the  vital  fluids  in  order  to  be  rapidly  util- 
Working  animals.  ized  in  the  manner  just  mentioned.  For  animals  destined  for 
work,  a  nutritious,  rich  and  nitrogenous  ration  is  recommended, 
to  support  the  losses  which  the  muscles  undergo.  Alongside  of 
these  elements  are  the  fatty  substances,  which  are  also  very 
important.  Recent  investigations  demonstrate  that  muscular 
work  is  always  accomplished  by  a  considerable  consumption  of 
carbohydrates;  sugar,  for  example,  can  often  form  a  new  source 
of  energy  for  a  fatigued  organism.  It  is  under  all  circumstances 
essential  not  to  overwork  animals,  as,  if  they  are  in  any  way 
emaciated  through  the  loss  of  flesh,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
make  up  this  loss — which  always  means  a  drain  on  the  system 
— by  the  use  of  a  supplementary  amount  of  forage,  by  the  means 
of  which  the  original  muscular  energy  may  be  restored. 
Rations  for  stall-  For  animals  not  working,  it  is  proposed  that  the  proportion 
fed  animals,  between  the  albuminous  and  the  non-albuminous  substances 
shall  be  as  1  :  10.  Working  animals  and  those  being  fed  should 
receive  an  additional  amount  of  albuminoids.  If  working  oxen 
have  been  called  upon  for  exceptional  service  in  the  fall  of  the 
year,  they  should  be  brought  up  to  a  normal  standard  during 
the  winter,  viz:  they  should  be  well  fed,  not  necessarily  to  ex- 
cess, as  the  expense  would  not  be  justified,  and  four  to  six  weeks 
before  their  spring  working  commences  their  nourishment  can 
be  increased. 

Upon  general  principles,  it  may  be  said  that  this  question  of 
feeding-up  should  be  carried  on  so  that  it  be  palatable  and 
rational,  resulting  in  the  maximum  effect  at  the  least  possible 
expense,  and  under  all  circumstances  keeping  out  all  those  oh- 


.    CONCLUSIONS.  I 

jectionable  elements  which  would  in  any  way  impair  the  general 
health  of  the  animal  under  consideration. 

Now  the  question  is  brought  within  the  sphere  of  a  very  Conclusions, 
rational  science  and  may  be  made  very  profitable.  Fodders 
may  be  made  as  profitable  to  farmers  as  the  cultivation  of  cere- 
als; in  the  latter  case,  the  farmer  is  always  at  a  disadvantage,  for 
what  he  extracts  he  can  never  return  to  the  soil,  and  this  may 
also  be  said  of  potatoes  and  many  other  farm  products.  Here 
is  one  of  the  special  advantages  offered  by  the  beet.  In  all 
periods  of  our  agricultural  history,  the  farmer  has  hesitated  to 
grow  other  than  that  which  has  a  market  value,  and  feeds  are 
thus  neglected ;  in  the  beet  he  combines  both — grows  something 
which  he  sells  and  which  he  can  subsequently  utilize  as  food. 
Whatever  be  the  advantage  of  the  fodder,  success  also  depends 
upon  the  selection  of  the  animal  to  be  kept,  and  its  age  and  kind 
should  depend  upon  the  locality  where  it  is  to  be  fed.  Distant 
from  towns,  ordinary  cattle  fattening  may  be  the  more  profit- 
able; near  cities,  on  the  other  hand,  dairying  is  the  most  desir- 
able. Before  either  is  commenced,  the  farmer  should  know  just 
how  much  forage  he  can  dispose  of,  as  upon  it  depends  the 
number  of  animals  to  be  fed. 

Stall  feeding,  with  any  idea  to  profit,  in  most  cases  leads  to 
negative  results  during  the  winter;  if  farmers  can  cover  their 
expenses  and  have  the  fertilizer  as  compensation,  they  may  in 
most  cases  consider  themselves  lucky.  The  utilization  of  dif- 
fusion pulp  may  be  made  very  profitable  in  those  cases  where 
all  other  fodders  are  too  expensive.  Farmers  frequently  de- 
cline attempting  more  than  a  reasonable  future  will  allow,  and 
at  the  approach  of  the  cold  weather  the  steers  are  sold,  fre- 
quently at  a  loss,  the  stalls  remain  empty  and  farm  hands  are 
dismissed  at  the  very  time  when  the  struggle  for  life  is  most 
difficult.  The  pulp  combination  in  the  animal  ration  not  only 
overcomes  all  objections  as  regards  high  price  of  staple  fodders, 
but  brings  about  social  prosperity  among  those  interested  by 
furnishing  labor  to  the  unemployed;  it  allows  a  more  extended 
rotation  of  crops  and  supplies  barnyard  manure  in  abundance. 
The  working  population  have  meat  at  a  lower  price,  and  milk, 
butter  and  cheese  are  sold  at  regular  market  rates,  regardless  of 


8  FEEDING   WITH   SUGAK   BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  fodders  in  general.  In  cases  where 
farms  are  within  a  reasonable  proximity  to  beet-sugar  factories, 
the  fertility  of  the'  soil  is  maintained  for  the  reason  that  the 
salts  extracted  during  the  cultivation  of  a  crop  of  beets  are  sub- 
sequently returned. 

We  are  convinced  that  the  results  obtained  in  feeding  scrub 
cattle  with  cossettes,  are  very  misleading  in  more  ways  than 
one.  The  time  will  certainly  come  when  a  certain  selection 
will  be  found  advantageous,  for  then  will  follow  better  assimi- 
lation of  the  product  fed  and  a  higher  quality  of  the  resulting 
meat.  Evidently,  all  facts  being  equal,  the  longer  the  cattle 
may  be  kept,  the  higher  will  be  their  price  per  pound  upon  the 
market.  This  question  undergoes  important  changes,  and  the 
present  outlook  is  not  encouraging  in  this  direction. 


PART  FIRST. 

Feeding  and  rattening  Young  Steers  and  Cattle. 

IT  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  the  value  of  an  animal  siderations  reja. 
and  the  facilities  for  fattening,  depend  upon  the  amount  of  fat  tjve  to  the  for- 
already  stored  up.  mation  of  fat. 

Fats  in  fodders  may  be  reabsorbed  and  deposited  in  the  body 
without  undergoing  any  special  change;  fats  that  have  an  en- 
tirely different  composition  from  that  of  the  body  are  not  reab- 
sorbed, but  must  undergo  many  combinations  before  being 
assimilated.  It  then  becomes  evident  that  the  fat  of  fodders  is 
not  necessarily  stored  up  at  once,  notwithstanding  that  their 
composition  is  very  much  the  same  as  animal  fats. 

The  problem  consequently  is  to  determine  which  are  the 
nutrients  that  supply  the  greater  part  of  the  fat  deposited.  The 
principal  groups  to  be  considered  are  the  albuminoids  and  carbo- 
hydrates, as  it  is  mainly  from  them  that  the  fat  is  derived. 

From  the  knowledge  at  our  disposal,  we  conclude  that  part  of 
the  protein  of  fodders  when  it  does  not  undergo  a  fermentation 
in  the  intestines  may  generate  fat,  which,  as  a  general  thing,  is 
burned  during  the  act  of  respiration  at  the  same  time  as  the 
digestible  fat  furnished  with  the  fodder.  It  is  maintained  that 
the  only  way  of  explaining  the  formation  of  fat  in  the  body  from 
a  given  food  is  to  consider  the  fat  in  the  ration,  and  then  what  is 
formed  by  the  splitting  up  of  the  protein  of  the  feed.  The  in- 
teresting problem  now  before  us  is  to  determine  how  domesti- 
cated ruminating  animals  store  up  fat,  and  how  this  can  be  ac- 
complished to  the  best  advantage,  as  is  necessary  in  systems 
of  fattening  and  in  meat  production.  The  only  solution  within 
our  reach  is  the  determining  of  the  efficiency  of  a  ration  by  the 
increase  of  weight  after  fattening. 

Investigators  have   frequently   been  too  hasty  in  declaring 

(9) 


10       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

that  carbohydrates  were  not  direct  fat  formers.  In  Kiihn's  ex- 
periments it  has  been  shown  that  only  24  to  64  per  cent,  of  fat 
furnished  in  fodder  is  deposited  in  the  body.  In  some  special 
cases  the  accumulation  of  fat  was  so  rapid  that  there  could  be 
no  doubt  that  it  must  have  had  a  carbohydrate  origin.  In  the 
old  theories  it  was  admitted  that  51.4  parts  of  the  oxidized  pro- 
tein of  fodder  was  converted  into  fat,  and  by  adding  this  amount 
to  the  fat  of  fodder  it  was  possible  to  obtain  with  considerable 
approximation  the  amount  of  fat  formed. 

The  influence  of  carbohydrates  on  the  formation  of  fat  has 
been  most  carefully  examined  by  Soxhlet,  of  Bavaria,  Tschir- 
winsky,  of  Russia,  and  Weissel,  of  Austria.  Most  of  these  ex- 
periments were  upon  swine,  and  it  was  shown  that  the  protein 
and  fat  of  fodder  could  account  for  the  fat  obtained.  In  the 
experiments  of  Weiske  and  Schulze  upon  geese,  with  a  nutritive 
ratio  of  1 :5,  the  influence  of  carbohydrates  could  not  be  doubted. 
If  it  is  admitted  that  73  to  84.8  per  cent,  of  the  fat  formed 
comes  from  the  protein  and  asparagin,  13  to  17.6  per  cent,  must 
have  been  furnished  by  the  carbohydrates.  Experiments  upon 
dogs  show  that  carbohydrates  are  rapidly  and  completely  burned 
and  converted  into  carbonic  acid.  While  the  whole  question 
continues  to  be  based  upon  theory,  experiments  made  thus  far 
appear  to  prove  that  an  increase  in  quantity  of  the  fat  of  fodder 
is  followed  by  a  slight  increase  in  the  animal's  weight.  Fat 
coming  from  the  splitting  up  of  protein  is  more  readily  con- 
verted into  animal  fat  than  the  fat  of  fodder,  and  the  rapidity 
of  fat  formation  is  greater  in  a  fat  than  in  a  thin  animal.  Too 
much  water  in  fodder  has  a  destructive  effect  upon  protein  and 
upon  the  organic  substances  of  the  body  ;  consequently  too 
watery  fodders  should  be  used  with  great  caution.  The  ambient 
temperature  of  the  stable  also  has  an  important  influence,  as  a 
considerable  part  of  the  animal's  vital  heat  is  absorbed  in  heat- 
ing the  air  of  the  lungs  up  to  the  temperature  of  the  blood,  and 
if  the  heat  of  the  stable  is  too  high,  evaporation  is  excessive  and 
the  assimilation  of  food  very  uncertain.  The  size  of  the  body 
is  not  without  importance;  small  animals  demand  for  their 
nourishment  proportionally  more  food  than  large  ones.  All 
bodily  exercise  means  a  consumption  of  fat. 


FORMATION    OF    FAT.  11 

A  strange  habit  prevails  in  some  centers  which  consists  in 
bleeding  animals  to  be  fattened;  it  is  maintained  that  there 
follows  an  increase  in  the  absorption  of  oxygen  and  elimination 
of  carbonic  acid,  which,  in  other  words,  means  a  decrease  in 
the  decomposition  of  fat,  which  is  followed  by  an  increased 
storing  up  the  latter.  A  fact  now  generally  admitted  is  that 
the  poorer  the  blood  of  an  animal,  the  greater  is  the  amount  of 
fat  stored  up.  The  influence  of  carbohydrates  on  the  production 
and  deposit  of  fat  may  be  explained  by  taking  into  considera- 
tion the  decrease  in  the  decomposition  of  the  fat  of  the  body. 
While  it  is  generally  admitted  that  100  parts  fat  =  244  starch, 
Voit's  experiments  prove  that  175  parts  of  starch  are  equivalent 
practically  to  100  parts  of  fat.  The  fact  is,  carbohydrates  are 
more  rapidly  oxidized  than  is  fat;  they  may  indirectly  render 
considerable  service  in  preventing  in  a  measure  the  oxidation  of 
the  fat  of  the  body  and  that  furnished  by  the  protein  of  the 
fodder.  When  fodders  do  not  contain  sufficient  carbohydrates 
there  must  necessarily  be  a  loss  of  fat  of  the  body  to  facilitate 
the  oxidation  that  occurs  during  respiration.  The  influence  of 
the  carbohydrates  upon  the  fat  of  the  body  and  that  of  fodders 
is  limited. 

Experiments  show  that  when  fat  is  fed  in  excess  of  that 
necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  the  animal,  the  surplus  is 
deposited.  This  fact  does  not  hold  good  for  carbohydrates,  for 
while,  up  to  a  certain  period,  they  help  to  store  up  fat,  later, 
when  in  excess,  their  action  ceases.  The  general  laws  for  the 
formation  or  production  of  flesh  and  fat  appear  clearly  to  show 
that  it  is  not  alone  necessary  to  feed  fodder  in  sufficient  quanti- 
ties for  the  apparent  requisites  of  life,  but  it  must  be  given  so 
that  there  exists  an  actual  proportion  between  the  protein  and 
carbohydrates,  an  average  ratio  appearing  to  be  the  most  suit- 
able. When  there  is  insufficient  albumin,  then  the  essential 
requisite  for  the  rapid  production  of  flesh  and  fat  is  lacking. 
A  ration  containing  an  excess  of  protein  on  the  other  hand  will 
stimulate  the  circulatory  albumin  and  the  amount  of  flesh 
deposited.  If  the  proportion  of  carbohydrates  is  too  small,  they 
do  not  exert  their  influence  in  preventing  a  decomposition  of 
the  protein,  and  as  a  result  the  amount  of  fat  stored  up  is  not 


12  FEEDING    WITH   SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

.proportional  to  that  furnished  by  the  fodder.  An  excess  of 
carbohydrates  brings  about  an  unnecessary  decomposition  of 
protein  and  fat.  Serious  complications  may  arise,  and  the 
droppings  under  these  circumstances  contain  the  portions  that 
have  not  been  assimilated. 

Theoretical  con-  Most  of  the  early  experiments  having  in  view  the  production 
siderations  re-  of  flesh  were  made  upon  dogs.  A  complete  account  of  same 
specting  flesh  woui(j  be  beyond  the  scope  of  this  writing:  however,  the  con- 
elusions  arrived  at  are,  in  some  respects,  very  much  the  same  as 
they  would  have  been  upon  ruminating  animals,  the  assimila- 
tion or  re-absorption  being  almost  identical  in  the  two  cases. 
Wolff  says  that  experiments  show  that  a  dog  can  eat  15  grams 
of  starch  per  kilogram  of  live  weight;  a  milch  cow  or  oxen  well 
fed  will  extract  from  fodder  about  the  same  amount  of  carbo- 
hydrates per  diem  and  per  unit  of  weight,  though  the  same  may 
be^said  of  protein,  but  not  of  fat,  which  ruminating  animals  do 
not  digest  as  readily  as  carnivora.  Let  the  animal  be  what  it 
may,  it  becomes  carnivorous  when  starved,  in  the  sense  that  it 
consumes  its  own  flesh.  When  the  ration  has  been  properly 
combined,  the  amount  of  protein  decomposed  from  the  body  per 
diem  and  per  kilogram  of  live  weight  is  1,8  grams  for  milch 
cows,  1.2  for  sheep  and  only  0.75  for  a  stall-fed  ox.  When  the 
ration  is  very  rich,  these  figures  are  more  than  doubled,  as  the 
case  may  be.  The  protein  consumed  during  fasting  is  by 
no  means  a  sure  basis  for  determining  the  amount  needed 
to  sustain  life  in  a  normal  condition  of  health.  The  protein 
needed  for  such  a  purpose  is  several  times  more  than  the  exper- 
iments indicate,  for  if  an  animal  receives  more  albumin  than  it 
actually  requires,  an  equilibrium  is  after  a  reasonable  interval 
established,  which,  in  other  words,  means  that  in  the  urine, 
etc.,  there  is  found  eliminated  an  amount  of  nitrogen  exactly 
equal  to  the  surplus  furnished  in  the  fodder,  the  rapidity  of  the 
establishment  of  this  equilibrium  depending  upon  the  amount 
of  protein  furnished.  The  conditions  must  necessarily  vary  for 
each  case.  As  to  the  pros  and  cons  of  feeding  too  much  protein, 
much  might  be  written.  There  is  ample  evidence  to  show  that 
an  excess  of  albumin  is  better  than  a  deficiency,  as  the  waste,  if 
there  be  any,  is  compensated  for.  Numerous  experiments  show 


FLESH    FORMATION. 


13 


that  the  protein  consumption  is  less  in  a  fat  than  in  a  thin  ani- 
mal. If  a  ration  rich  in  protein  is  followed  by  one  poor  in  pro- 
tein, during  the  first  few  days  the  nitrogen  expelled  will  be  much 
greater  than  that  furnished,  and  later  the  equilibrium  establishes 
itself.  The  importance  of  salt  in  feeding  farm  animals  has 
already  been  alluded  to  in  these  pages;  however,  it  is  important, 
in  a  general  way,  to  say  that  salt,  when  given  in  reasonable 
amounts,  will  increase  the  decomposition  of  albumin  of  the 
body  by  stimulating  the  circulation,  and  the  volume  of  urine 
thrown  off  is  also  increased.  When  the  volume  of  water  used 
is  decreased  and  salt  continues  to  be  added  to  the  fodder,  the 
urine  decreases,  perspiration  decreases,  and  the  body  can  then 
furnish  the  deficiency  of  water  and  expel  the  salt  in  excess; 
consequently  it  is  important,  when  using  considerable  salt,  to 
give  at  the  same  time  plenty  of  water,  as  otherwise  the  animal 
will  soon  lose  weight.  The  normal  conditions  are  soon  re-estab- 
lished when  the  animal  is  allowed  to  drink  water  in  reasonable 
amounts.  A  fact  not  to  be  overlooked  is  that  an  animal  should 
not  be  allowed,  under  these  circumstances,  to  drink  at  liberty, 
as  the  protein  consumed  would  be  eliminated  in  abundance. 

In  special  cases  too  much  fat  in  fodder  will  slightly  decrease 
the  decomposition  of  albuminoids,  due  to  the  fact  that  more 
albumin  enters  the  circulation. 

There  are  methods  for  economizing  the  quantity  of  albumin 
so  as  to  obtain  the  maximum  meat  production.  In  Stoh- 
mann's  experiments  it  was  shown  that  by  increasing  the  digesti- 
ble elements  from  8.9  to  9.7  kilos,  while  the  proportion  of 
digestible  albumin  and  carbohydrates  remained  constant,  the 
amount  of  albumin  reabsorbed  was  32  per  cent.,  while  before 
the  change  was  made  it  was  only  18  per  cent,  of  the  total  con- 
tained in  the  fodder,  under  which  circumstances,  when  fatten- 
ing is  the  object  in  view,  there  is  a  necessity  of  forcing 
consumption. 

A  certain  care  is  necessary  when  increasing  the  amount  of 
protein  in  a  ration,  as,  if  the  limit  is  passed,  there  may  be 
very  little  deposited  in  the  tissues  and  the  operation  would 
certainly  not  be  profitable. 

By  the  addition  of  sugar  in  the  shape  of  molasses  or  beet 


14  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

pulp  to  fodder,  there  would  follow  a  decrease  in  protein  con- 
sumption. As  to  the  advantages  of  a  wide  nutritive  ratio, 
there  is  much  to  be  said.  If  the  limit  is  passed  the  fodder  will 
not  contain  sufficient  protein  for  the  requirements  to  sustain  life, 
and  the  reserve  supply  is  drawn  on  with  a  corresponding  loss  of 
weight;  furthermore,  the  fat  of  a  ration  is  one  of  the  expensive 
elements,  and  the  amount  to  be  used  is  a  matter  of  considera- 
tion depending  upon  the  market  value  of  feeding  stuff.  If, 
upon  general  principles,  it  can  be  admitted  that  the  action  of 
carbohydrates  is  about  the  same  as  fats,  one  would  generally 
find  them  the  more  economical. 

Ruminating  animals  when  left  to  themselves  consume  large 
quantities  of  carbohydrates.  If  animals  are  fed  simply  for 
maintenance  they  should  be  given  a  proportionately  small  per- 
centage of  protein,  but  it  should  be  supplied,  even  though  in  a 
minimum  quantity,  as  the  cattle  cannot  live  without  it,  and 
there  can  no  substitute  be  found  for  it. 

A  wrong  The  feeding  and  fattening  of  steers  with  beet  residuum 
impression.  COssettes  is  carried  on  upon  a  very  extensive  scale  in  several 
of  the  Western  States,  and  a  few  facts  relating  to  the  same 
are  mentioned  elsewhere  in  this  writing.  Such  combinations  as 
are  there  used  would  hardly  be  practicable  in  the  Eastern  States. 
In  what  follows  we  propose  to  give  only  a  general  outline  of  the 
requisites  for  the  practical  and  theoretical  feeding  and  fattening 
of  young  cattle  and  steers,  the  outcome  of  the  experience  of 
most  of  the  experiment  stations  and  of  the  leading  American 
and  foreign  authorities,  combined  with  some  personal  observa- 
tions of  the  writer.  Upon  general  principles  it  seems  very 
simple  to  purchase  at  the  commencement  of  the  winter  a  lot  of 
semi-starved  animals,  and  to  feed  them  upon  rations  consisting 
of  beet-sugar  factory  residuum  products  combined  with  other 
forages.  The  increase  of  weight  is  at  first  encouraging,  but 
towards  the  end  of  the  fattening  certain  difficulties  arise.  The 
consideration  of  the  advantage  of  certain  foods  over  others  in 
combination  with  either  fresh  or  dried  pulp  or  any  molasses 
combinations  would  take  us  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present 
writing;  the  local  environment  has  its  influence  in  this  respect, 
and  while  certain  forages  may  be  found  to  be  very  superior 


DIFFICULTIES    AND    EXPERIMENTS.  15 

for  the  object  in  view,  they  may  be  too  expensive  to  be 
practically  applied  to  feeding  in  special  localities  where  the 
beet-sugar  factory  is  located.  Cornmeal  bran,  oil  meal,  etc., 
may  be  found  in  most  markets  of  the  country  at  prices  that 
undergo  comparatively  slight  fluctuations. 

The  passage  from  liquid  to  solid  food  for  growing  cattle  is  no  Difficulties  con- 
easy  matter;  the  conditions  are  most  complicated  and  experi-  tended  with 
ments  in  this  special  direction  are  very  limited.  What  is  con-  ments  ex 
sumed  before  a  growing  animal  is  weaned  has  for  its  principal 
object  muscle  and  bone  formation  and  general  sustenance  of  the 
vital  processes.  Soxhlet's  experiments  point  to  the  fact  that 
food  produced  a  greater  increase  of  weight  in  a  given  time  than 
would  have  been  possible  with  mature  animals;  1.93  Ibs.  of  dry 
matter  consumed  per  diem  per  100  Ibs.  live  weight,  gave  an 
increase  of  1.8  Ibs.  in  weight.  The  calves  experimented  upon 
were  very  young  animals,  under  thirty  days  old.  The  average 
consumption  of  milk  during  this  experiment  was  16.2  Ibs.  per 
diem,  and  analysis  of  excrement  proved  that  only  0.04  Ibs.  of 
dry  matter  was  not  assimilated,  showing  that  'the  milk  had 
been  most  thoroughly  digested.  The  most  natural  conditions 
are  to  allow  the  calf  as  soon  as  weaned  to  feed  upon  young  grass 
in  the  fields.  As  soon  as  cold  Aveather  approaches  they  should 
be  kept  in  suitably  arranged  stalls,  in  pairs,  never  alone,  and 
there  should  be  ample  room  for  them  to  move  about,  as  a 
reasonable  amount  of  exercise  is  one  of  the  requisites  for  natural 
development.  When  the  calf  is  taken  from  the  field  to  the  barn, 
green  fodder  should  be  furnished  as  long  as  possible,  and  it  is 
in  this  connection  that  sugar  beets  render  such  excellent  ser- 
vice; they  may  be  considered  as  wet  green  fodders  and  may  be 
furnished  during  an  entire  winter.  The  future  health  and  com- 
mercial value  of  a  steer  always  depends  upon  the  winter  that 
follows  its  birth;  this  is  a  fact  too  frequently  overlooked.  Fod- 
ders for  winter  feeding  are  expensive,  so  that  growing  cattle 
hardly  get  the  food  they  require  for  a  healthy  maintenance,  and 
as  a  result,  considerable  money  is  lost  during  the  following 
spring,  which  period  is  too  frequently  devoted  to  recuperation 
from  the  bad  effects  of  being  underfed  during  several  months 
previous.  Hence  it  is  recommended  to  determine  in  advance 


16       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

exactly  what  the  supply  of  fodder  is  and  to  limit  the  number  of 
cattle,  having  their  weight  and  age  under  consideration,  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  case,  calculating  an  ample  supply 
per  diem.  Such  calculations  may  be  brought  to  a  very 
practical  basis  with  siloed  residuum,  fresh  or  dried  cossettes  or 
with  many  of  the  molasses  combinations. 

Water.  The  question  of  water  is  most  important.    The  amount  drunk 

by  steers  varies  very  considerably — it  may  reach  over  30  gallons 
per  diem,  or  be  only  12  gallons.  Upon  general  principles,  it 
should  be  admitted  that  with  an  increase  of  protein  in  the  ration 
there  will  always  follow  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  water 
drank,  and  another  factor  not  to  be  overlooked  is  that  there  is 
also  a  variation  due  to  whether  the  steers  are  at  freedom  or  tied 
up  in  their  stalls. 

Dally  weighing.  We  are  strongly  in  favor  of  daily  weighing  the  steers  being 
fattened,  when  possible,  as  one  can  thus  make  changes  in  the 
general  rations  and  bring  about  special  glassifications  of  the 
animals  being  fed.  Great  variations  will  be  noticed  in  the  same 
animal;  some  days,  for  some  unknowrn  reason,  there  will  be  a 
falling  off  rather  than  an  increase  in  weight  of  the  animal  under 
observation. 
Varied  feeds  re-  At  the  various  experiment  stations  of  the  United  States  some 

commended,  special  food  in  each  case  appears  to  be  recommended  for  steer 
feeding.  The  most  interesting  among  these  investigations  are 
those  with  cotton  seed,  and  it  is  claimed  that  it  offers  special 
advantages  for  fattening  purposes,  superior  to  most  grains.  Just 
in  what  proportions  it  could  be  best  combined  with  beet  sugar 
factory  residuums  must  be  determined  by  practical  experi- 
ments. 

Essentials  In  It  is  not  alone  sufficient  that  cattle  increase  in  weight,  the 
fattening.  meat  formed  should  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  increase  of 
weight  must  be  due  to  fat  accumulation  that  thoroughly  perme- 
ates the  entire  fibre.  It  would  be  an  easy  matter  to  show  the 
increase  in  profits  in  dollars  and  cents.  With  every  profitable 
case,  the  most  important  of  all  is  to  have  an  animal  that  has 
inherited  certain  characteristics  tending  towards  fat.  We  con- 
sider that  the  great  fault  of  many  farmers  is  that  they  do  not 
endeavor  to  draw  a  close  analogy  between  the  requirements  of 


REQUISITES    FOR    SUCCESSFUL    FATTENING.  17 

the  animals  being  fattened  and  themselves;  excitement  of  any 
kind  should  be  avoided,  and  the  animal  must  have  perfect 
quiet;  hence  we  consider  it  a  mistake  for  the  cattle-shed  to  be 
too  near  the  factory,  as  the  noise  from  same  has  a  thinning 
effect  and  prevents  perfect  assimilation. 

Steer  feeding,  on  a  large  or  extended  scale,  cannot  be  made  Requisites  for 
profitable  unless  there  are  suitable  shelters  and  comforts  at  the     success- 
disposal  of  the  animals.     It  is  not  desirable  to  tie  up  or  confine 
these  animals,  as  they  must  take  a  reasonable  amount  of  exer- 
cise, which  is  always  followed  by  better  appetites  and  an  increase 
in  the  total  weight  of  the  ration  eaten.     The  cattle  must  have 
comparatively  warm   indoor  quarters  where   they  may  retire 
when  so  inclined. 

The  fattening  period  should  last  from  three  to  four  months, 
a  good  limit  being  four  months,  under  which  circumstances  the 
pulp  used  remains  but  a  very  short  time  in  the  silos  after  the 
campaign  is  ended,  and  what  is  left  over  is  fed  to  cattle  in  gen- 
eral. As  the  fattening  period  progresses,  the  nature  and  re- 
quirements differ;  hence  it  is  essential  to  have  the  ration 
compatible  with  these  requirements.  During  the  first  period 
the  character  of  the  animal  should  be  studied,  his  likes  and 
dislikes  looked  after,  and,  within  a  reasonable  extent,  all  future 
rations  should  be  based  upon  these  observations. 

One  advantage  that  pulp  and  beet  molasses  feeding  offers  over  Advantages  of 
the  regular  modes  is  that  the  supply  may  be  kept  well  up  to     su9ar  beet 
June,  and  there  is  thus  no  temptation  on  the  part  of  stockmen 
to  turn  cattle  out  to  pasture,  for  this  sudden  change  in  diet  does 
not,  as  a  general  thing,  prove  beneficial.     There  frequent!}7  fol- 
lows an  important  falling  off  in  weight.    It  is  better  to  keep  them 
upon  the  ration  they  have  had  during  several  months  previous, 
up  to  the  time  they  leave  for  the  slaughter  house. 

One  of  the  most  important  points  is  to  keep  in  mind  that  Requisites  for 
the  cattle  must  be  made  to  eat  the  greatest  possible  amount,      successful 
As  previously  pointed  out,  it  is  possible  to  force  the  animals, 
so  as  to  reach  44  Ibs.   dry  matter  per  diem  with  an  increase 
of  weight  of  4  Ibs.  a  day,  for  a  short  period.     There  is  ample 
authority  to  show  that  the  feeding  should  be  in  periods — the 
first  period  has  the  object  of   pushing  or  forcing  the  ration; 
2 


18       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

in  the  second  the  nutritive  ratio  should  be  about  1  to  3.5  or  1 
to  4,  and  as  during  last  period  the  appetite  diminishes,  the  de- 
sirability of  having  a  very  digestible  ration  is  evident. 

During  the  first  period  the  standard  can  be  0.35  Ibs.  hay,  3.2 
Ibs.  beet,  0.18  Ibs.  oat  hulls  and  0.11  colza  oil  cake,  which  cor- 
responds to  one  pound  dry  matter.  If  we  suppose  that  the  con- 
sumption is  25  Ibs.  dry  matter  per  diem,  then  the  ration  would 
be  80  Ibs.  beet,  8.7  oat  hulls,  2.7  oil  cake,  total  weight  95.9  Ibs, 
varying  with  the  eating  capacity  of  the  animals  being  fed.  In- 
stead of  beets,  diffusion  pulp  could  be  used,  and  other  by-pro- 
ducts could  take  the  place  of  oat  hulls  and  oil  cake,  arranging 
so  that  the  total  dry  matter  be  up  to  the  standard  and  retain  the 
nutritive  ratio  at  1.5. 

The  ration  during  the  second  period  should  differ  somewhat 
from  the  first,  and  may  be  made  up  as  follows  for  a  standard 
corresponding  to  1  Ib.  dry  matter:  0.3  Ib.  hay,  2.5  Ibs.  beets, 
0.12  Ibs.  oat  hulls,  0.11  colza  oil  cake,  0.12  chopped  oil  cake, 
0. 13  wheat  bran.  If  we  suppose  the  consumption  is  20  Ibs.  dry 
matter,  the  total  ration  would  be:  6  Ibs.  hay,  50  Ibs.  beets,  2.4 
oat  hulls,  2.2  colza  cake,  2.4  Ibs.  oil  meal  and  2.6  Ibs.  wheat 
bran.  In  this  case,  as  in  the  previous  one,  such  materials  as 
are  at  the  farmer's  disposal  may  be  substituted  for  the  several 
products  mentioned.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  lighter  than  during 
first  period. 

The  third  period  is  also  interesting.  We  may  use  during  this 
time,'hay  0.30  Ibs.,  beets  2.00  Ibs.,  oat  hulls  0.12  Ibs.,  colza 
cake  0.13  Ibs.,  barley  meal  0.10  Ibs.,  crushed  corn  0.20  Ibs. 
— to  1  Ib.  dry  matter. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  during  the  last  period  to  constantly 
examine  the  excrements.  The  slightest  colic  would  completely 
destroy  all  probability  of  success. 

Some  French  farmers  get  good  results  by  cooking  the  fodder 
during  the  third  period  and  feeding  it  warm;  the  cattle  eat  this 
with  avidity  and  in  greater  quantity  than  they  do  the  usual 
fodder. 

Success  depends      It  is  for  the  stockman  to  determine  what  kind  of  steers  and  of 
upon  practical  what  age  he  can  best  feed  to  advantage,  for  both  of  these  con- 
experience.     gi(jerations  are  important  factors  in  the  financial  results  to  be 


PREPARATIONS    FOR    SHIPPING.  19 

expected  from  the  undertaking.  As  the  steer  advances  in  age 
it  can  no  longer  lay  up  fat  as  it  could  when  younger,  and.finally 
a  period  is  reached  when  a  sort  of  physical  equilibrium  is  estab- 
lished, from  which  time  the  weight  remains  stationary  and  the 
fattening  would  be  a  money-losing  operation.  Before  this  limit 
is  reached  the  average  cost  for  one  pound  increase  in  live  weight 
increases;  while  for  one  pound  gain  during  the  first  two  months 
there  would  be  needed  7  Ibs.  of  food,  after  six  months  there 
would  be  needed  10  Ibs.  for  the  same  increase  in  live  weight; 
but  this  in  beet-pulp  feeding  is  of  only  secondary  importance, 
as  the  cost  of  the  product  used  is  so  slight  that  it  need  not  be 
considered  upon  a  basis  of  a  few  pounds  more  or  less  in  the 
ration  per  diem,  and  under  these  circumstances  the  stockman 
can  select  his  own  time  for  selling.  By  most  modes  when  this 
residuum  is  not  a  factor,  the  money  cost  of  the  fodder  and  the 
results  obtained  no  longer  leave  the  stockman  master  of  the 
situation.  Experiments  made  some  years  since  by  Lawes  and 
Gilbert  tend  to  show  that  for  each  pound  increase  in  live  weight 
there  are  needed  about  12.5  Ibs.  dry  substance  in  the  fodder. 

Upon  examining  the  numerous  bulletins  of  the  experiment  Money  advant- 
stations,  one  is  led  to  conclude  that  the  cost  of  food  for  100  Ibs.    a9es  of  teet 
increase  in  live  weight  varies  from  66.50  to  $4.     With  beet    reslduiin:s- 
residuum  pulp  fodder  at  $2  a  ton,  this  cost  can  be  considerably 
diminished. 

A  question  that  certainly  needs  important  attention  is  greater  Needs  for  ship- 
facilities   for   shipping.     After  a   journey  of   several   hundred  P'n9  facilities, 
miles  there  follows  a  shrinkage  in  live  weight  which  is  very  un- 
necessary if  certain  conditions  of  comfort  were  offered  to  the 
cattle  during  their  transportation. 

As  to  the  best  modes  of  preparing  fattened  steers  before  ship-  Preparations  for 
ping,  the  authorities  do  not  agree;  but  upon  general  principles      shipping, 
it  may  be  admitted  that  the  less  they  drink  and  the  fuller  their 
stomachs  are  of  solid  food,  the  greater  are  the  chances  of  suc- 
cess; they  may  drink  upon  arriving  at  destination.     In  some 
cases  for  long  journeys  it  is  desirable  to  feed  on  the  road,  and 
for  this  special  case  caked  molasses  combinations  would  evi- 
dently offer  advantages. 

Salt  in  steer  feeding  should  be  used  with  certain  precautions 


20  FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

— it  increases  the  thirst  and  considerably  augments  the  flow  of 
urine,  which  are  certainly  not  desirable  conditions.  The  lead- 
ing authorities  admit  that  the  limit  allowed  for  a  ration  should 
be  about  60  grams  per  100  kilos  live  weight,  this  amount  to  be 
increased  up  to  100  grams  towards  end  of  fattening.  In  the 
Essentials  for  foregoing  we  mention  that  the  steer  to  be  profitably  fattened 
CSSt  must  have  certain  comforts.  Upon  this  subject  Professor 
Henry  says:  "Dry,  protected  yards,  with  sheds  on  the  wind- 
ward side,  under  which  the  animals  may  lie  down  in  comfort, 
are  the  ideal  places  for  steer  feeding.  To  keep  the  steer  stan- 
chioned or  confined  to  a  rope  in  the  stable  entails  useless  labor 
on  the  stockman,  and  prevents  proper  exercise.  Crude  as  has 
been  much  of  the  open  yard  feeding  in  the  West,  the  cattle  so  fed 
have  really  experienced  more  comfort  than  had  they  been  con- 
fined in  the  stable,  as  is  common  in  the  East."  The  growing 
steers  should  be  fed  several  times  a  day  at  regular  intervals — 
for  the  older  cattle  the  number  of  times  may  be  reduced,  but  it 
is  always  important  to  have  regular  feeding  hours.  It  is  a 
great  mistake,  as  previously  pointed  out,  to  introduce  the 
cossette  ration  to  steers  at  once;  several  weeks  should  elapse 
before  the  normal  standard  is  reached,  and  from  that  time  on 
great  regularity  should  prevail.  As  cattle  become  accustomed 
to  their  attendant,  the  persons  employed  should,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, always  be  the  same,  but  their  goings  and  comings  should 
not  be  too  frequent.  In  special  modes  of  treatment  the  rations 
should  be  combined  with  almost  mathematical  precision,  for 
the  cattle  eat  with  avidity  that  combination  to  which  they  are 
accustomed.  Experience  shows  that  it  is  a  great  mistake  to 
attempt  any  temporary  methods  of  stimulating  the  appetites  of 
the  animals  fed,  for  a  reaction  is  sure  to  follow.  A  very  strong 
impression  prevails  among  the  average  farmers,  who  have  not 
had  requisite  experience,  that  steer  fattening  means  sufficient 
capital  at  the  start  to  purchase  a  herd  and  the  facilities  for  their 
keeping  during  the  fattening  period,  which  may  last  six  months. 
The  difference  in  the  results  obtained  by  a  professional  stock- 
man who  knows  just  what  attention  is  needed  and  when  it 
should  be  given,  and  another  person  attempting  the  work  of 
steer  fattening  for  the  first  time,  will  be  most  striking.  What 


MILCH    COW    FEEDING.  21 

these  requisites  are  cannot  be  described  in  print,  but  our  advice 
to  the  farmer  is  to  have  in  his  employ  a  person  who  has  given 
the  question  considerable  attention  for  a  term  of  years.  The 
troughs  should  always  be  kept  clean,  and  all  food  not  eaten 
removed  after  the  regular  interval  for  feeding  has  elapsed.  As 
regards  the  droppings,  Professor  Henry  says  nothing  else  gives 
such  an  excellent  idea  of  the  progress  of  the  fattening.  "While 
they  should  never  be  hard,  they  should  be  thick  enough  to 
1  pile  up,'  and  have  that  unctious  appearance  which  indicates  a 
healthy  action  of  the  liver.  There  is  an  odor  from  the  drop- 
pings of  well  fed  steers  known  and  quickly  recognized  by 
every  good  feeder.  Thin  droppings  and  those  with  a  sour 
smell  indicate  something  wrong  in  the  feed  yard.  The  conduct 
of  the  steer  is  a  further  guide  in  marking  the  progress  of  fatten- 
ing. The  manner  in  which  he  approaches  the  feed  box;  his 
quiet  pose  while  ruminating,  and  audible  breathing  when  lying 
down,  showing  the  lungs  cramped  by  the  well-filled  pouch;  the 
quiet  eye  which  stands  full  from  the  fattening  socket;  the  oily 
coat — all  are  points  that  awaken  the  interest,  admiration  and 
satisfaction  of  the  successful  feeder." 

Milch  Cow  Feeding. 

There  has  been  a  considerable  amount  of  literature  published  General  remarks, 
respecting  milch  cow  feeding.  If  one  pursues  the  same  a  start- 
ling fact  is  apparent,  viz.,  much  remains  to  be  done  before  the 
entire  question  may  be  brought  down  to  a  practical  and  reliable 
basis.  There  are  so  many  elements  to  be  considered,  such  as 
the  individual  characteristics  of  the  animal  under  observation, 
and  the  fluctuation  of  the  market  price  of  the  foods  used.  The 
main  object  in  view  being  milk,  the  cow  must  receive  those  ele- 
ments which  would  tend  to  increase  this  milk  flow  and  yet  sus- 
tain the  animal  in  the  best  possible  conditions.  If  this  feeding- 
is  pushed  to  an  excess,  a  reaction  is  sure  to  follow  which  will 
destroy  all  the  possibilities  of  profitable  feeding. 

However,  it  must  be  admitted,  that  in  the  entire  field  of  in- 
vestigations in  feeding  cattle,  there  are  but  few  instances  where 
there  is  a  greater  harmony  in  results  than  that  relating  to  milk 
production.  Just  to  what  extent  certain  foods  are  milk  pro- 


22 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


ducers,  how  certain  rations  are  adapted  to  one  breed  of  cows 
and  not  suited  to  another,  etc.,  are  questions,  to  fully  discuss 
which  would  demand  much  space — at  present  simply  the  more 
important  facts  are  to  be  considered. 

Under  the  best  regimen  concentrates  are  combined  with 
roughage.  It  is  doubtful  if  these  mixtures  would  have  been 
suited  to  the  primitive  cow;  they  are  the  requisites  which  are 
the  outcome  of  the  modern  and  special  environment  in  which 
the  milch  cow  is  now  living.  The  cow  in  its  wild  state  had 
only  her  calf  to  feed;  the  demands  for  surplus  milk  for  dairying 
purposes  have  resulted  in  an  abnormal  increase  of  the  udder  and 
its  secretion,  and  to  meet  the  demands  there  is  an  important 
need  of  some  additional  digestible  substances  that  the  roughage 
alone  can  not  supply. 

While  it  is  generally  recommended  that  a  cow  shall  have  at 
its  disposal  all  that  she  will  eat,  the  practice  is  a  mistake  after  the 
cow  has  reached  the  maximum  flow  of  milk,  as  the  animal  will 
then  tend  to  fatten,  and  this  will  be  followed  by  a  reduction  in 
the  daily  flow  of  milk. 

No  animal  can  adapt  itself  with  better  advantage,  owing  to  its 
special  digestive  arrangement,  to  varied  feeding  than  can  a  milch 
cow.  A  fact  not  to  be  overlooked  is  the  possibility  of  its  being 
able  to  use  the  roughage,  and  thus  no  other  nutriment  is  re- 
quired. While  apparently  protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates  are  not 
directly  needed  for  milk  production,  they,  nevertheless,  play  some 
important  mysterious  role,  as  the  fact  of  the  cow  losing  weight 
when  they  are  directly  lacking  shows  without  further  argument 
that  they  are  essential.  Carbohydrates  certainly  pla}r  an  impor- 
tant role,  but  they  cannot  alone  make  up  for  the  deficiency. 
Most  feeders  admit  that  if  a  cow  will  not  respond  to  increased  feed- 
ing by  an  increased  supply  of  milk  the  animal  had  better  be  sold. 

The  question  of  feeding  milch  cows  is  a  subject  that  interests 
every  farmer  of  the  country.  If  his  land  belongings  consist  of 
but  a  few  acres  he  generally  finds  it  to  his  advantage  to  have  a 
cow  furnishing  the  milk  for  his  family  use.  The  maintenance 
of  the  animal  under  the  best  economical  conditions  may  be 
better  realized  with  sugar-factory  residuums  than  is  possible 
with  any  other  single  feed  he  may  have  at  his  disposal.  The 


TWO    SORTS   OF    MILCH    COWS.  23 

price  per  ton  of  fresh  residuum  cossettes  is  so  small  as  compared 
with  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  their  use,  that  it  becomes 
possible  to  reduce  the  annual  cost  of  the  cow  feeding  to  a  mini- 
mum. A  cow  properly  looked  after  should  yield  over  6,000 
pounds  of  milk  per  annum,  this  depending,  within  reasonable 
limits,  upon  the  animal's  body  weight.  Light  cows  give  pro- 
portionally more  milk  than  heavy  ones,  and  the  milk  contains 
more  fat  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter  case.  Argue  as  one 
may,  there  are  certain  unknown  factors  in  the  case,  and  the  re- 
sults obtained  in  dairying  tests  are  very  contradictory.  We 
thoroughly  believe  in  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the 
breed,  and  admit  at  the  same  time  the  arguments  of  conforma- 
tion of  the  animal  independent  of  breed.  A  writer  in  a  bulletin 
of  the  Ohio  experiment  station  points  out  that  from  the  time 
the  first  calf  is  born  until  the  seventh  year,  cows  will  give  in- 
creasing quantities  of  milk  for  a  given  weight  of  fodder;  from  that 
time  on  the  secretion  of  the  milk  glands  apparently  diminishes. 

Dairying  based  on  maternity  of  the  cow  is  well  explained  by  Dairying  based 
Prof.  Henry.  "Nature's  practice  of  accumulating  fat  beneath  on  "wternity 
the  skin  and  between  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  animal's  body  ( 
is  to  store  heat  and  energy-producing  material  against  a  time  of 
need.  The  process  at  first  goes  on  rapidly,  but  after  a  time  the 
system  becomes  gorged,  and  a  further  storage  of  fat  is  accom- 
plished only  at  a  high  cost  for  feed  consumed.  How  different 
with  the  dairy  cow,  which  eats  heartily  the  food  given  her,  not 
for  the  purpose  of  storing  fat  to  protect  herself  against  a  time  of 
possible  bodily  want,  but  for  the  nurture  of  the  young.  Food 
given  at  night  is  digested  and  converted  into  milk  ready  for  the 
calf  in  the  morning,  the  assimilated  products  disappearing  from 
day  to  day  almost  as  soon  as  elaborated,  making  easy  way  for 
more  of  the  same  kind  from  the  same  source — the  appropriation 
by  man  of  the  milk  designed  by  nature  for  the  calf  makes  pos- 
sible the  great  art  of  dairying — man  stimulates  the  dairy  cow  by 
abundant  feed  and  favorable  surroundings  to  produce  much 
more  milk  than  is  really  needed  by  the  calf  were  it  still  the  ob- 
ject of  her  care." 

Milch  cows  may  be  considered   from   two    points  of  view.    f*o  sorts  of 
for  their  milk-furnishing  qualities  and  as  a  source  of  revenue  for    milch  cows> 


24       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

breeding.  There  are  cases  where  they  are  not  profitable  as  milk 
producers,  under  which  circumstances  they  had  better  be  fat- 
tened and  sold  to  the  butcher;  for  example  in  a  city,  where 
the  milk  is  the  only  object  in  view,  and  the  high  .selling  price 
permits  elaborate  feeding.  Under  such  circumstances  the  cow 
is  purchased  when  it  has  attained  its  full  maturity,  that  is,  after 
the  third  calf  has  been  born. 

Considerations  The  quantity  and  composition  of  milk  differ  with  the  cow. 
about  milk  and  Certain  cows  giving  considerable  milk  after  calving  will  soon 
milking.  run  ^^  whjje  fae  reverse  would  be  true  for  other  cows.  It  is 
always  important  to  remember  that  a  cow  that  has  been  dry  for 
a  long  time  gives  more  milk  after  calving;  that  cows  reach  their 
maximum  of  milk  production  after  the  birth  of  the  third  calf 
and  then  decline,  but  in  some  special  cases  their  milk  character- 
istics are  retained  for  a  very  long  time.  As  a  general  thing  the 
milk  will  be  more  abundant  and  better  if  the  calf  is  born  during 
pasturage  season.  An  ample  supply  of  milk  depends  more  than 
is  generally  supposed  upon  the  dampness  of  the  locality;  near 
the  sea  or  rivers,  etc. ,  are  the  best  localities. 

Upon  general  principles  it  may  be  admitted  that  immediately 
after  calving  the  milk  is  the  richest  in  protein  and  fatty  sub- 
stances; the  percentage  decreases  for  one  week,  and  then  the 
quality  remains  constant. 

Milk  of  young  animals  not  having  attained  their  full  growth 
is  more  watery  than  that  of  older  cows  properly  fed.  The 
fattened  condition  of  the  cow  has  also  an  important  influence, 
and  there  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  it  is  a  great  mistake  to 
allow  the  general  constitution  of  a  cow  to  run  down,  as  the  milk 
is  sure  to  lose  its  quality.  The  time  of  milking  not  only  has  an 
influence  upon  the  composition,  but  upon  the  quality  of  the  milk 
which  varies  with  the  same  milking;  at  first  the  milk  contains 
less  fatty  substances  than  towards  the  end.  For  example,  the 
morning  milk  contains  more  water  and  less  fat  than  that  of  the 
evening,  and  three  milkings  per  diem  appear  to  be  better  than 
two.  Whatever  be  the  ration,  it  is  impossible  to  change  a  poor 
milk  into  a  rich  one. 

Fat  percentage  in  milk  is  the  true  and  only  basis  for  its  sale. 
The  milk  obtained  while  feeding  with  sugar-factory  residuum 


CALF-F^EDIXG.  25 

frequently  contains  less  fat  than  that  obtained  with  other  pro- 
ducts, and  the  dairyman  is  in  this  respect  at  an  apparent  dis- 
advantage; all  facts  being  equal,  beet-residuum  fed  cows  give  a 
greater  volume  of  milk,  so  that  in  the  long  run  the  money 
returns  prove  greater  than  they  are  with  less  milk  and  more  fat. 

A  calving  cow  needs  a  warm,  comfortable  stable,  and  should  Calving  cow. 
be  freely  covered  with  a  blanket  when  the  occasion  demands; 
then  follow  many  precautionary  measures  which  are  beyond  the 
scope  of  the  present  writing,  but  suffice  it  to  say  that  after 
calving  the  ration  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  bring  it  up  to  a 
maximum  pulp  feeding,  regardless  at  first  of  the  money  returns 
in  butter,  etc.  After  this  pushing,  compensation  will  neces- 
sarily follow.  Experience  shows  that  if  these  early  stages  are 
neglected,  do  what  one  may,  the  difficulty  cannot  be  met. 
After  the  maximum  milk  flow  has  been  reached,  the  cossette 
feeding  should  be  diminished  in  a  rational  proportion,  the  out- 
come of  personal  observation. 

The  ultimate  cow  is  an  object  that  one  must  always  have  in  Calf-feeding, 
view;  if  the  calf  does  not  receive  what  it  needs  for  its  early  de- 
velopment the  full-grown  cow  will  necessarily  be  disappoint- 
ing. What  is  much  to  be  regretted  is  that,  just  as  is  the 
case  with  many  women,  considerations  for  the  mother  come 
before  those  for  the  progeny.  The  milk  of  the  mother  is  better 
suited  to  the  offspring  than  any  possible  combination,  or  even 
the  nurse  who  makes  up  for  the  neglect.  In  the  average 
methods  of  dairying,  the  butter,  etc.,  considered  from  a  com- 
mercial standpoint,  are  more  important  than  the  calf,  and  then 
one  is  surprised  that  there  follows  an  ultimate  decline  in  the 
quality  of  the  average  stock.  Giving  the  calf  skim  milk  as  a 
main  food  and  then  whole  milk,  etc.,  may  be  all  very  well  in 
theory,  but  the  grain  diet  when  it  comes  is  introduced  with 
greater  difficulty.  These  artificial  means  are  always  a  mistake. 
Hence  the  reason  for  the  very  faulty  conclusions  drawn  when 
attempting  beet  cossette  feeding  with  animals  that  have  under- 
gone artificial  methods  and  the  disregard  of  the  regular  rules  of 
nature  during  the  early  development. 

If  the  start  be  made  with  ample  nitrogenous  foods  having  in 
view  muscle  development,  tending  also  to  facilitate  digestion, 


20  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

the  excellent  effects  will  be  of  benefit  to  the  cow  later  on.  If  the 
fat-forming  nutriments  are  pushed  to  an  excess,  the  subsequent 
milk  forming  characteristics  will  be  considerably  diminished. 
Rations  and  Upon  general  principles  it  must  be  understood  that  the  ration 
feeds.  should  be  made  up  under  admitted  rules,  and  if  it  contains  too 
much  coarse  fodder  there  will  follow  a  decrease  in  the  milk  flow, 
just  as  there  would  if  the  feed  had  been  too  sparingly  or  exces- 
sively given.  As  regards  narrow  and  wide  rations,  the  bulk  of 
argument  for  economical  milk  production  appears  to  be  in  favor 
of  narrow  rations.  We  must  argue  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
various  localities  and  be  governed  by  the  price  of  feeds  upon  the 
market.  In  one  part  of  the  United  States  protein  may  be  cheap 
and  carbohydrates  expensive,  then  in  other  sections  the  reverse 
may  be  the  case,  so  it  is  best  to  have  some  standard  and  adhere 
to  it  as  nearly  as  possible.  The  feeds  to  be  combined  with  fresh, 
siloed  or  dried  residuum  cossettes  depend  upon  the  local  condi- 
tions, under  which  certain  forages  are  more  desirable  than  others. 
Experience  shows  that  com  and  col)  meal  give  more  milk  than 
whole  ear  corn,  so  the  farmer,  when  possible,  should  give  pref- 
erence to  the  former.  There  is  an  evident  money  saving  in  using 
cob  meal  and  com  in  preference  to  whole-ear  corn,  and  the 
assimilation  is  greater  during  its  passage  through  the  alimentary 
canal.  The  advantages  of  certain  cotton-seed  meals  as  com- 
pared with  gluten,  wheat  or  corn  meal,  is  a  question  to  examine 
which  in  detail  would  lead  us  beyond  the  scope  of  this  present 
writing,  and  as  the  hay  added  must  depend  upon  the  local  sup- 
ply, the  farmer  cannot  be  benefited  by  having  an  extended 
amount  of  information  as  to  the  advantages  of  clover  hay  over 
meadow  hay,  for  example. 

While  a  large  portion  of  the  fodders  is  produced  on  the  farm, 
certain  feeds  have  to  be  purchased,  and  their  utilization  is  not 
always  profitable  from  a  money  standpoint.  If  a  farm  could  be 
self-supporting,  the  ideal  in  cattle  feeding  would  be  reached, 
and  hence  sugar-beet  residuum  offers  a  practical  solution  of  this 
rural  problem. 

Influence  of  feeds     There  can  be  no  doubt  that  fodders  have  an  important  influ- 

upon  butter   ence  upon  the  taste  of  butter.     Just  what  the  cause  is  has  never 

and  milk.     keen  satisfactorily  settled.     The  winter  butter  is  generally  con- 


INFLUENCE    OF    FEEDS    UPON    BUTTER    AND    MILK.          27 

sidered  very  inferior  to  that  resulting  from  pasture-fed  cows. 
The  facilities  for  keeping,  etc.,  are  all  influenced  by  the  fodder 
used.  When  the  ration  is  poor  in  nitrogen  or  not  eaten  with 
relish  by  the  animal,  the  butter  does  not  appear  to  have  the  same 
consistence  as  when  the  appetite  is  good.  It  frequently  happens 
that  butter  has  a  tallow  flavor,  and  in  such  cases  stearin  is  actu- 
ally in  greater  proportion  than  the  fluid  fatty  substances.  With 
an  inferior  fodder,  milk  is  always  more  watery  than  it  is  when 
the  ration  has  been  properly  combined.  Experiments  by  Schrodt 
show  that  certain  oil  cakes  are  beneficial  in  the  production  of 
milk,  there  being,  however,  one  important  requisite,  and  that  is 
that  the  rape  cake  used  must  not  have  undergone  any  alteration, 
but  be  perfectly  fresh. 

Certain  feeding  stuffs  have,  without  doubt,  an  important  in- 
fluence upon  the  flavor  of  butter.  Potatoes,  beets,  barley,  etc., 
all  have  their  characteristics,  and  certain  flours,  rice,  etc.,  im- 
prove the  quality  and  taste  of  butter.  The  composition  of  milk 
varies  as  the  milking  period  advances. 

It  is  important  to  mention  the  influence  of  inorganic  sub- 
stances on  the  quality  and  quantity  of  milk.  The  flow  of  milk 
is  very  largely  influenced  by  the  percentage  of  mineral  elements, 
such  as  phosphoric  acid  and  lime.  Henneberg  and  Stohmann 
show  that  for  the  maintenance  of  an  ox  of  1000  Ibs.  li^ve  weight, 
there  is  needed  0.05  Ib.  phosphoric  acid,  0.1  Ib.  lime  and  0.2  Ib. 
potassa,  and  if  we  admit  that  the  production  of  milk  per  diem  is 
10  quarts  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight,  this  milk  containing  0.04  Ib. 
phosphoric  acid,  0.03  Ib.  lime  and  0.035  Ib.  potassa,  by  adding 
these,  we  see  that  the  daily  ration  should  contain  0.09  phos- 
phoric acid,  0.13  lime  and  0.235  potassa.  No  account  need  be 
taken  of  potassa,  as  all  fodders  contain  it  in  abundance.  Thirty 
Ibs.  of  hay  of  average  quality  (used  for  1000  Ibs.  live  weight), 
contain  0.122  Ib.  phosphoric  acid,  0.256  Ib.  lime  and  0.390  Ib. 
potassa.  Of  all  the  fodders  at  our  disposal,  there  are  only  straw 
chaff,  roots,  beet  pulp  and  certain  cereals  which  cannot  be  fed 
alone  and  demand  the  addition  of  a  small  percentage  of  lime, 
and  in  some  exceptional  cases  there  is  a  deficiency  of  phosphoric 
acid.  The  addition  of  common  salt  is  very  important,  as  it 
limits  the  waste  of  sodic  salts.  The  beneficial  effects  of  salt  are 


28       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

numerous,  among  which  is  the  stimulation  of  the  appetite,  and 
it  also  ameliorates  the  quality  of  certain  fodders.  Wolff  recom- 
mends that  sodic  chlorid  be  used  in  doses  of  about  30  to  50 
grams  per  diem  and  per  animal. 

One  of  the  arguments  advanced  by  the  opponents  of  fresh 
cossette  feeding  was  that  being  very  watery,  it  would  result  in 
watery  milk;  but  there  is  ample  authority  to  show  that  such  is 
not  the  case.  The  whole  question  of  the  influence  of  fodders 
upon  the  butter  fat  has  been  repeatedly  gone  over,  and  at  the 
present  time  the  results  taken  upon  the  whole  are  very  contra- 
dictory and  consequently  not  reliable. 

As  for  flavors  of  milk  and  butter,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
onions,  turnips,  etc.,  impart  certain  characteristics,  and  that 
certain  grasses  affect  butter  in  a  more  or  less  noticeable  degree; 
just  within  what  limits  the  breed  of  the  cows  has  an  influence 
remains  to  be  determined.  As  pointed  out  elsewhere  in  this 
writing,  certain  milk  characteristics  are  often  attributed  to  the 
feed,  while  in  reality  they  are  the  outcome  of  the  action  of  cer- 
tain micro-organisms  existing  in -the  stable;  these  are  frequently 
due  to  neglect  of  the  essentials  of  cleanliness. 

The  question  of  flavor  of  milk  is  also  an  important  one,  and 
fodders  have  an  important  influence  desirable  or  objectionable; 
hence  on^  must  take  into  consideration  the  kind  of  fodder  being 
used.  Grass  from  very  low  lands,  garlic,  etc.,  should  not  be 
fed.  Many  kinds'  of  oil  cakes  are  decidedly  objectionable,  as 
they  are  difficult  to  keep  and  result  in  a  milk  of  objectionable 
flavor.  Brewers'  malt  in  some  cases  gives  an  inferior  milk. 
Theoretical  con-  It  must  be  understood  that  milk  is  not  eliminated  from  the 
siderations.  blood  as  is  urine  from  the  kidneys,  or  any  other  assimilation 
and  excretion  of  the  body.  This  fact  is  made  evident  by 
analysis  of  the  ash  of  milk,  which  contains  considerable  potassa 
and  calcic  phosphate,  while  those  fluids  that  separate  from  the 
blood  contain  considerable  sodic  chlorid.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  milk  were  simply  an  excretion  indirectly  from  the  blood,  it 
would  not,  within  itself,  constitute  a  complete  food,  and  the 
newly  born  could  not  then  find  the  requisites  for  their 
development. 

In  the  elaboration  of   milk  from  the  colostrum,  or  the  first 


THEORETICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  29 

milk  secreted,  there  takes  place  little  by  little,  a  sort  of  granu- 
lation, and  finally  the  cells  fill  with  fat.  These  latter  constitute 
the  milk  globules  surrounded  by  casein;  they  are  suspended  in 
a  liquid  containing  casein,  milk  sugar,  and  various  salts.  Milk, 
as  previously  pointed  out,  is  in  reality  a  sort  of  fatty  degenera- 
tion of  the  cells  of  the  milk  glands;  in  other  words  the  nitrogen- 
ous elements  of  w^hich  they  consist  are  transformed  into  milk 
as  soon  as  the  glands  enter  into  activity.  Casein  does  not  exist 
ready  formed  in  the  blood,  but  depends  upon  the  association 
of  certain  cells.  This  explains  why  the  colostrum  does  not 
contain  it  just  before  the  calf  is  born.  Milk  sugars  appear  to 
be  the  result  of  the  decomposition  of  albumin  and  fat. 

Milk  has,  all  facts  considered,  a  very  regular  composition. 
Just  what  effect  nervous  excitement  produces  remains  an  open 
question.  The  quantity  and  quality  of  milk  are  determined 
mainly  by  the  composition  and  size  of  the  milk  glands.  A  well 
known  fact  is  that  with  the  same  fodder  the  volume  of  milk  ob- 
tained from  different  cows  will  vary  considerably.  Wolff  calls 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  cows  belonging  to  the  mountains 
will  give  a  richer  milk  than  those  of  the  valleys;  that  very 
young  cows  will  give  less  milk  than  older  ones. 

It  is  impossible,  even  by  careful  feeding,  to  bring  about  a 
satisfactory  secretion  of  milk,  unless  the  milk  glands  are  con- 
stituted for  its  formation.  In  this  question  the  race  and  indi- 
vidual characteristics  play  a  part.  Under  these  conditions  the 
abnormal  development  of  the  udder  is  not  a  sure  indication  in 
advance  of  the  possibility  of  an  abundant  flow  of  milk.  Con- 
sequently, while  feeding  is  very  important,  it  is  not  the  most 
essential  requisite,  and  although  it  has  a  considerable  influence 
upon  the  volume  of  milk  obtained,  it  has  very  little  upon  its 
composition.  Above  all,  the  introduction  of  considerable 
protein  is  important,  as  upon  it  the  constant  renewal  of  the 
cells  of  the  milk  glands  depends,  as  these  cells  are  not  only 
made  up  of  protein,  but  are  filled  with  it.  Another  fact  is  that 
albumin  appears  to  increase  the  percentage  of  solid  matter  con- 
tained in  milk.  It  is  important  that  the  protein  reach  the  milk 
glands  as  promptly  as  possible,  hence  the  albumin  must  be  of 
the  circulatory  order. 


30  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

With  the  view  to  accomplishing  this,  it  is  important  to  re- 
member that  the  proportion  of  nutrients  in  the  ration  be  well 
considered.  A  too  narrow  nutritive  ratio  has  a  tendency  to 
increase  the  protein  consumption  of  the  body.  As  a  general 
thing,  the  nutritive  ratio  for  cows  can  be  narrower  than  for 
animals  fed  for  maintenance  only. 

All  facts  considered,  albumin  is  essential  to  milk  production. 
Among  other  advantages,  it  facilitates  the  absorption  of  water, 
which  has  a  favorable  influence  upon  the  flow  of  milk,  etc.  If 
an  excess  of  protein  is  fed  it  will  be  wasted.  Feeding  ex- 
clusively with  hay  hardly  ever  gives  the  most  satisfactory 
results.  In  ordinary  feeding  it  is  noticed  that  there  is  consider- 
able falling  off  when  the  percentage  of  digestible  protein  of  the 
ration  decreases,  while  the  non-nitrogenous  elements  may  be  in 
abundance.  From  numerous  experiments  made  not  many 
years  since,  it  becomes  possible  to  determine  almost  exactly  the 
amount  of  digestible  protein  needed,  which  is  admitted  to  be 
2.3  Ibs.  to  3  Ibs.  per  1,000  Ibs.  live  weight,  and  that  of  non- 
nitrogenous  substances  13.5  Ibs.;  the  nutritive  ratio  conse- 
quently is  about  £,  in  which  is  included  0.3  to  0.6  Ibs.  of 
digestible  fat,  while  the  total  dry  matter  reaches  24  Ibs.  to 
35  Ibs. 

The  satisfactory  production  of  milk  may  also  be  accomplished 
with  a  ratio  containing  less  nitrogen,  but  the  experiment  to  a 
certain  extent  is  rather  risky.  Wolff  says,  if  after  several 
months  the  flow  of  milk  reaches  10  quarts  per  1,000  Ibs.  live 
weight  per  diem,  and  if  the  milk  contains  fat  and  albumin  in 
the  proportion  which  constitutes  good  milk,  it  would  be  a  great 
mistake  to  feed  less  than  2.5  Ibs.  of  protein.  Apparently  an 
increase  in  the  amount  of  fat  of  a  ration  would,  as  does  protein, 
bring  about  a  favorable  effect  upon  the  flow  of  milk,  more 
especially  in  regard  to  its  percentage  of  fat;  but  practical  ex- 
periments in  this  direction  do  not  show  this  to  be  the  case.  It 
may,  however,  be  admitted  that  an  increase  of  fat  in  a  ration 
will  slightly  increase  the  flow  of  milk,  which  will  contain  more 
fat  than  the  normal  milk,  but  it  should  be  fed  with  precaution, 
as  otherwise  it  also  would  be  wasted.  Just  to  what  this  is  to  be 
attributed  is  an  open  question.  Wolff  says  that  possibly  a  cer- 


SHELTER.  31 

tain  amount  of  albumin  of  the  fodder  is  not  destroyed  and  in- 
fluences the  flow  of  milk.  It  is  important  to  call  attention  to  a 
series  of  investigations  in  which  the  animals  had  suitable 
amounts  of  oil  cake,  etc.,  added  to  their  ration,  so  that  the 
daily  consumption  of  fat  was  about  one  pound,  and  the  total 
production  of  milk  remained  almost  unchanged;  furthermore, 
there  followed  a  slight  reduction  of  fat  in  the  milk,  accom- 
panied by  a  greater  dilution,  and  consequently  a  decrease  in 
the  percentage  of  solid  matter.  On  the  other  hand,  Kiihn's 
experiments  show  that  it  is  possible  to  add  one  pound  of  fat 
and  thus  secure  an  increased  flow  of  one  pint  of  milk,  while  the 
fat  percentage  of  the  latter  remained  about  the  same.  Experi- 
ments upon  goats  differed  somewhat  from  these,  and  it  is 
difficult  to  determine  just  within  what  limits  conclusions  of 
this  kind  have  a  bearing  upon  cows.  Experiments  of  Weiske 
show  that  sheep  that  had  been  fed  with  0.5  kilos  hay,  0.5  kilos 
barley,  and  1  kilo  beets,  did  not  yield  more  milk  than  with  a 
ration  of  grass  ad  libitum  to  which  was  added  0.5  barley  and 
0.25  kilos  flaxseed  meal,  but  the  percentage  of  fat  increased 
from  5  to  6.4  per  cent. 

When  cows  are  fed  exclusively  upon  hay,  the  yield  of  milk 
per  diem  will  decrease  rapidly,  but  the  percentage  of  dry  mat- 
ter in  the  milk  will  increase. 

Essentials  for  Successful  Dairying. 

The  question  of  shelter  varies  in  importance  to  the  animal  Shelter, 
being  fed;  for  steers  it  never  means  as  much  as  it  does  for  milch 
cows.  When  the  temperature  in  the  stable  is  below  50°  F., 
there  is  a  decline  in  the  milk  production,  and  in  view  of  this 
question,  it  is  difficult  to  undertake  profitable  dairying  on  a 
limited  capital. 

Experience  seems  to  show  that  for  1000  Ibs.  live  weight,  there 
are  needed  1000  cu.  ft.  of  air,  and  in  combination  with  this, 
ample  ventilation  and  no  draught.  It  stands  to  reason  that  if 
the  air  is  not  pure,  the  quality  of  the  milk  will  suffer.  Just  as 
light  plays  an  important  role  in  the  healthy  condition  of  man 
so  it  does  with  cattle  and  too  much  attention  cannot  be  given 
to  all  these  hygienic  questions. 


32  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

Luxury.  If  a  cow  can  be  surrounded  with  certain  ease  and  comfort,  it 
will  tend  to  increase  her  milk  flow.  In  this  matter  we  refer  to 
bedding,  stable,  warm  surroundings,  etc.,  and,  even  in  summer, 
there  should  be  protection  against  the  sun. 

Stables.  Stables  should  be  spacious  and  of  a  constant  temperature  not 
too  high.  The  beds  should  be  sufficient  and  on  a  horizontal 
surface.  There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  special  evil  effect 
from  keeping  manure  in  the  stable,  but  care  must  be  taken  that 
a  reasonable  amount  of  plaster  be  added  to  combine  with  the 
liberated  ammonia. 

Breed  and  kind  Dairying  cannot  be  profitably  undertaken  unless  due  consi cl- 
ef cow.  eration  is  given  to  the  nature  of  the  cow.  In  most  cases  the 
market  value  of  milk  depends  upon  its  percentage  of  butter  fat, 
and  certain  breeds  give  more  than  others  and  are  never  the 
cheapest  when  purchased  but  by  careful  feeding  they  may  be 
more  profitable  in  the  long  run.  The  best  breeds  do  not  eat 
more  than  the  inferior  kind,  and  yet  the  butter  production  may 
be  four  times  greater  in  one  case  than  in  another. 

Cows  should        Cows  should  have  a  trial  even  if  highly  recommended,  and  if 

have  a  trial.  no^  foun(j  Up  to  expectation  should  be  got  rid  of.  A  pulp 
ration  may  be  suited  to  one  breed  of  special  characteristics  and 
not  to  another.  The  question  can  be  reduced  to  a  science,  and 
the  ultimate  result  which  in  no  country  has  ever  been  sufficiently 
considered,  is  to  create,  as  it  were,  a  special  cow  suited  above 
all  others  to  the  diet  offered  by  thorough  cossette  feeding.  A 
few  cents  more  or  less  in  the  selling  price  of  the  resulting  butter, 
milk,  etc.,  makes  these  arguments  more  and  more  plausible. 

Continued  at-  Neglect  can  never  be  made  up  for,  and  if  one  cannot  give  to  a 
tention.  milch  cow  constant  and  continued  attention,  there  will  be  a  loss 
in  the  long  run.  If  the  flow  of  milk  for  one  reason  or  another 
decreases,  the  average  is  below  the  normal  during  the  season. 
Kindness.  The  importance  of  kindness  is  too  frequently  overlooked  in 
the  care  of  milch  cows,  and  as  the  secretion  of  the  milk  gland 
reaches  its  maximum  during  milking,  it  is  then  that  precaution- 
ary measures  should  be  taken,  for  any  unkind  treatment  would 
simply  lower  the  flow  of  milk  from  the  gland.  Even  before  or 
after  milking  brutality  always  means  nervous  excitement  with  a 
reducing  action  on  the  milk  gland  flow.  Thus  the  milker  has 


DIFFICULTIES    IN    FEEDING.  33 

an  influence  upon  the  volume  of  milk  obtained,  and  its  per- 
< -outage  of  butter,  fat,  etc. 

Feeding. 

While  fodders  are  essential  for  the  production  of  an  abundant  Time  of  feeding, 
supply  of  milk,  regularity  in  feeding  has  an  importance  equally 
great.  This  must  never  be  overlooked,  as  when  the  hour  comes 
tfre  cow  frets,  bringing  about  nervous  excitement,  which  is 
always  followed  by  a  decreased  flow  of  milk.  It  is  better  to  feed 
the  milch  cow  just  after  milking  rather  than  before,  and  under  no 
circumstances  during  milking,  as  the  milk  might  be  contaminated 
by  certain  volatile  substances  that  feeds  frequently  contain. 
These  find  their  way  almost  immediately  to  the  milk,  which 
would  result  also  in  poor  butter.  Three  meals  a  day,  in  which 
the  total  ration  is  proportionally  fed,  should  be  given,  and  if 
hay  is  given  but  once  a  day,  better  feed  at  mid-day.  After  the 
last  meal  straw  might  be  advantageously  used.  It  is  important 
that  the  animal  completely  finish  one  meal  before  it  commences 
tin.4  second. 

Successful  cossette  feeding  depends  in  more  ways  than  one  Successful  cos- 
upon  the  feeder;  he  must  care  for  and  be  interested  in  his  work,    sette  feeding. 
must  love  animals  in  general,  realize  that  animals,  like  men, 
have  certain  characteristics  and  must  be  dealt  with  accordingly. 
The  element  of  cleanliness  appears  to  have  been  overlooked  in 
certain  farms  that  have  attempted  cossette  feeding,  yet  success, 
especially  with    milch   cows,    depends  upon  this;  and    to   at- 
tempt looking  after  many  more  than  twenty  cows  is  in  more 
ways  than  one  a  mistake. 

Various  theories  are  advanced  respecting  the  influence  of  ex-      Excessive 
cessive  feeding,  some  claiming  that  its  effects  are  only  temporary      feeding. 
and  that  a  reaction  will  soon  follow.     Experience  seems  to  show 
that  when  the  ration  for  milch  cows  is  rich  in  protein  and  com- 
paratively poor  in   carbohydrates,   the  conditions  continue  to 
improve  for  a  long  time,  while  if  the  carbohydrates  are  in  excess 
the  reverse  will  be  the  case. 

Scientific  feeding  means  that  the  animal  fed  receives  exactly   Difficulties  in 
what  it  requires,  neither  more  nor  less,  and  this  fact  alone  makes       feeding, 
it  evident  how  complicated  the  whole  question  of  proper  feeding 
3 


34       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

becomes.  It  necessarily  means  repeated  weighing  and  analysis 
of  feeds  used.  If  these  essentials  are  neglected  and  merely  an 
average  is  taken,  practical  results  may  be  obtained,  but  it  re- 
mains to  be  proved  that  they  are  always  profitable  in  the  long 
run. 

Stable  feedjng  All  facts  considered,  it  is  possibly  best  during  very  warm 
and  exercise,  weather,  that  cows  be  taken  to  the  fields  during  the  day  and  put 
in  the  stables  at  night.  The  yield  of  milk  is  evidently  influ- 
enced by  exercise  taken,  so  if  that  is  the  sole  object  in  view,  as 
is  the  case  in  proximity  to  cities,  the  less  exercise  the  better; 
if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  object  aimed  at  is  to  secure  a  good 
cow  to  be  subsequently  used  for  breeding,  fresh  air  is  necessary. 
Considerable  might  be  said  as  to  methods  of  keeping  fields  in 
proper  condition. 

Feeding  with  the       An  impression  generally  prevails  that  there  is  a  certain  rela- 

view  to  butter  ^on  between    the   ambient   temperature  and   the  hardness  of 

lon'       butter,  but  the  truth  is,  it  is  the  winter  ration  that  is  responsible. 

Let  a  breeder  feed  linseed,  etc.,  to  an  excess  and  the  butter  will 

soften,  regardless  of  the  ambient  temperature.     The  same  may 

be  said  of  bran,  but  the  reverse  is  the  case  with  corn.     As  hard 

butter  always  means  more  money,  the  question  remains  whether 

it  is  not  profitable  in  the  end  to  purchase  those  feeding  stuffs 

that  will  lead  to  this  result — as  the  market  demands  vary  so 

should  the  ration. 

Feeding  accord-       Feeding  according  to  records  means  a  constant  all-day  watch- 
ing to  records.  ing.  suitable  tables  should  be  made 'giving  th$  practical  results 

obtained. 

Summer  feeding.  There  is  a  tendency  to  give  up  pulp  feeding  as  soon  as  the 
grass  appears;  this  change  of  diet  must  always  be  made  grad- 
ually and  with  certain  precautions. 

Question  of  The  question  of  labor  on  most  American  farms  is  one  that 
labor.  neutralizes  in  a  very  important  manner  all  arguments  as  regards 
the  economical  production  of  meat,  milk,  butter,  etc. ;  that  is 
why  the  tendency  is  more  and  more  to  adopt  a  sort  of  loose 
feeding,  giving  ample  room  for  circulation,  with  abundance  of 
water.  The  cleaning  need  only  be  done  at  regular  intervals  of 
several  months.  Also  it  is  pointed  out  that  in  stall-feeding,  the 
milk  is  much  freer  from  microbes  than  when  the  cows  have 


INFLUENCE    OF    WATER    UPON    FOOD    CONSUMPTION.        35 


their  freedom;  hence  what  is  gained  in  freedom  as  regards  labor 
is  lost  in  the  quality  of  the  resulting  milk. 

Too  much  importance  cannot  be  given  to  the  question  of 
possible  bacterial  contamination,  and  the  only  way  to  master 
its  pernicious  effects  is  by  cleanliness.  The  more  closely  the 
cow  can  be  looked  after,  the  less  are  the  chances  of  bacterial 
contamination.  Cleanliness  is  more  efficiently  attained  in  stall 
than  in  pen  feeding. 

Whatever  be  the  kind  of  food  used,  it  always  contains  water 
in  varied  proportions;  in  grains  and  dried  fodders  it  may  be  8 
to  16  per  cent.,  in  roots  it  is  frequently  90  per  cent.,  while  in. 
green  and  siloed  fodders  it  is  on  an  average  nearly  80  per  cent. 
As  water  when  combined  with  foods  plays  the  same  role  as  it- 
does  when  drunk,  it  does  not  enter  into  consideration  when  the 
computations  of  rations  are  made;  for  this  reason  the  analysis 
of  fodder  frequently  expresses  water-free  or  dry  matter.  The 
water  estimation  for  fodders  in  general  is  extremely  simple;  it 
consists  in  chopping  up  the  sample  and  weighing;  it  is  then 
dried  at  212°  F.  for  four  or  five  hours,  and  is  weighed  several 
times  during  this  interval;  wrhen  there  is  no  further  variation 
in  weight,  the  desiccation  is  complete.  The  weighing  before 
and  after  drying  gives  the  moisture  percentage. 

Water  forms  an  important  proportion  of  an  animal's  body, 
and  varies  considerably.  With  a  well  fattened  ox  it  may  reach 
46  per  cent. ,  while  in  case  of  sheep,  for  example,  it  is  not  much 
more  than  35  Ibs.  per  100  Ibs.  live  weight. 

Cattle  in  general  need  water,  and  consequently  they  eat,  with 
avidity,  fodders  containing  considerable  moisture,  such  as  dis- 
tillers' water  and  fresh  residuum  beet  cossettes;  but  there  is  a 
limit  which  never  should  be  exceeded,  as  many  complications 
are  to  be  feared.  Cattle  in  general  eat  according  to  their  appe- 
tites, and  they  frequently  absorb  more  water  than  their  healthy 
digestion  demands,  and  under  these  circumstances  there  would 
be  very  little  flesh  or  fat  formed.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however, 
that  cattle  fed  on  brewers'  residuum  frequently  have  a  bloated 
appearance,  and  when  sold  upon  the  market,  bring  very  low 
prices. 

Cattle  kept  in  very  warm   stables  have  abnormal  thirst  and 


Bacteria. 


Water  In 
feeding. 


Influence  of 
water  upon 
food  con- 
sumption. 


36  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

perspire  proportionally,  which  has  a  thinning  effect;  and  too 
low  a  temperature  in  the  stable  is  also  objectionable,  as  an  extra 
amount  of  food  is  necessary  to  supply  the  caloric  needed  to  heat 
the  air  breathed  to  the  temperature  of  the  body. 

The  water  absorbed  has  an  important  influence  on  protein 
consumption.  Experiments  have  shown  that  this  increase  may 
in  some  cases  reach  nearly  6  per  cent.  Voit  points  out  that 
it  is  a  mistake  to  allow  too  much  water  to  be  drunk  when  live 
stock  is  being  fattened,  and  therefore  the  salt  ration  should  be 
limited.  It  has  also  been  pointed  out  that  the  proportion  of  dry 
matter  in  a  food  to  water  should  be  for  cattle  one  to  four,  and  for 
sheep  one-half  this.  There  is  ample  authority  on  the  other 
hand  to  show  that  in  cows  allowed  to  drink  at  will,  the  milk 
flow  was  increased  and  the  fat  perceiJtage  remained  normal. 
Many  other  experiments  have  been  made,  however,  which 
tend  to  show  that  it  is  very  doubtful  if  there  are  any  advantages 
in  .having  water  at  the  constant  disposal  of  cattle,  as  cows 
allowed  to  drink  in  the  yard  are  as  healthy  as  those  depending 
upon  their  barn  supply. 

As  the  daily  milking  means  drawing  off  of  water,  this  must 
be  supplied,  and  some  experts  declare  that  one  had  better  allow 
the  cattle  to  drink  twice,  once  in  the  morning  and  once  in  the 
evening,  rather  than  only  once.  Which  is  the  best  mode  of 
keeping  the  water  remains  an  open  question.  If  the  stock  is 
being  fattened  it  is  better  to  have  the  supply  in  the  stable 
rather  than  compel  the  animals  to  make  long  tramps  to  drink 
at  some  distant  stream. 

Water  drunk  and  Some  experiments  have  been  made  to  determine  the  amount 
its  influence.  of  water  drunk  by  larnbs  during  fattening,  and  the  results  show 
that  it  varied  with  the  food.  For  sugar  beets  it  was  0.4  Ibs., 
while  with  oil  meal  it  reached  4.8  Ibs.  The  temperature  of  the 
water  has  an  important  influence  on  the  flow  of  milk.  Experi- 
ments.in  this  direction  made  at  the  Wisconsin  station  with  two 
lots  of  cows,  showed  that  when  the  water  was  at  70°  F.  on  the 
one  hand  and  32°  F.  on  the  other,  in  the  first  experiment  the 
warm  water  gave  6  per  cent,  more  milk  than  did  the  cold  water; 
in  the  second  experiment  this  difference  was  very  much  less. 
An  interesting  fact  furthermore  was  revealed,  viz.,  that  with 


ESSENTIALS    OF    GOOD    WATER.  37 

warm  water  the  daily  consumption  was  8  to  10  Ibs.  more  than 
with  cold  water. 

The  percentage  of  water  decreases  in  an  animal  as  the  process 
of  fattening  advances,  and  whatever  be  the  increase  in  weight, 
water  will  represent  at  least  J  or  J  of  the  flesh  added. 

The  water  when  given  in  excess  dilutes  the  gastric  juice  and 
sooner  or  later  brings  about  digestive  complications,  and  has  an 
important  influence  on  the  quality  of  the  milk.  The  supply  of 
water  is  consequently  a  most  important  question,  and  under  all 
circumstances  must  depend  upon  the  ambient  temperature. 
Experience  seems  to  show  that,  under  normal  conditions,  if  the 
stable  be  at  60°  F.,  when  animals  are  stall-fed  with  a  ration 
containing  -f  of  their  weight  in  wrater,  this  quantity  is  sufficient 
for  their  maintenance,  in  fact,  they  refuse  any  additional  drink. 
When  water  is  in  excess,  it  stimulates  the  excretion  of  urine. 

The  loss  of  water  through  the  urine,  lungs,  etc.,  is  at  least 
50  Ibs.  per  diem,  so  that  quantity  must  be  furnished,  and  if,  for 
example,  the  dry  fodders  contain  10  Ibs.  of  water,  then  40  Ibs. 
must  be  given  as  drink. 

When  excessively  diluted  rations  are  given,  diarrhoea  is  sure 
to  set  in,  hence  such  fodders  are  objectionable.  This  might  be 
an  argument  against  the  general  use  of  diffusion  pulps,  but  the 
difficulty  in  this  case  is  overcome  by  a  liberal  use  of  chopped 
straw.  So  arrange  that  the  requisite  amount  is  furnished,  say 
3  to  4  times  the  wreight  of  dry  matter  in  a  ration. 

Good  water  should  be  free  from  organic  matter  in  a  state  of  Essentials  of 
putrefaction,  and  it  should  be  clear.  Water  under  all  circum-  good  water. 
stances  must  have  combined  with  it  a  certain  amount  of  air, 
otherwise  it  would  be  heavy  on  the  stomach.  River  water  ap- 
pears to  offer  certain  excellent  conditions,  and  rain  water  may 
also  be  used.  Water  in  swamps,  from  drains,  etc.,  need  only 
be  considered  bad  when  it  has  a  strong  characteristic  odor  and 
in  most  cases  animals  prefer  it,  even  when  strongly  charged 
with  urine,  to  any  fresh  from  a  fountain.  Some  authorities 
recommend  that  bran  or  wheat  flour  be  added  to  water  with  the 
view  of  purifying  it. 

Salt  should  beat  the  cow's  disposal,  and  it  is  a  mistake  to        Salt, 
give  only  rock  salt.     A  great  mistake  is  also  an  over-feeding  of 


38       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETB. 

salt,  the  outcome  of  a  faulty  practice  of  mixing  this  with  the 
ration.  When  cows  have  for  a  time  had  less  salt  than  they 
actually  need,  it  should  not  be  introduced  suddenly  into  their 
ration. 

Mistake  in  start-  To  produce  an  inferior  article,  as  has  been  frequently  done 
ing  a  dairy,  through  the  temptations  of  cheap  feed,  means  no  profitable 
future;  hence  certain  preliminary  tests  should  be  made,  for 
competition  always  exists  and  the  investment  may  prove  a 
failure,  not  on  account  of  the  inferiority  of  the  product  fed,  but 
due  solely  to  neglect  of  the  most  elementary  principles  of  cow 
feeding.  With  poor  stock  upon  the  start,  there  necessarily 
follow  discouraging  results. 

If  the  animals  are  not  to  be  stall-fed  dt  is  important,  before 
attempting  to  start  a  dairy,  to  take  into  consideration  the  pas- 
turage facilities  in  the  vicinity,  and  while  in  the  foregoing  damp 
soils  were,  to  a  reasonable  extent,  recommended,  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  stagnant  water  is  very  objectionable,  as  the  milk 
would  certainly  be  influenced  thereby. 

Cooperative  jn  the  West  the  distances  are  comparatively  greater  than  in 
methods.  ^  gag^.  there,  as  elsewhere,  the  attempt  at  cossette  utilization 
on  a  cooperative  basis,  if  there  are  not  at  least  600  cows  to 
form  part  of  the  combination  at  a  distance  of  a  few  miles,  will, 
upon  general  principles,  never  prove  a  success;  under  no  cir- 
cumstances should  this  be  done  in  an  amateur  way,  but  the 
advice  of  recognized  experts,  and  not  of  agents  representing 
specialists,  should  be  taken. 

Calculation  of  Rations  for  Milch.  Cows. 

Preliminary  Remarks. 

WThile  in  this  country  most  of  the  directors  of  our  agricultural 
experiment  stations  accept  the  European  standards  and  methods 
for  the  calculation  of  a  ration  for  milch  cows,  etc.,  very  satis- 
factory results  are  obtained  by  the. so-called  empirical  sys- 
tems of  feeding.  Farmers  are  too  proud  to  admit  that  they 
cannot  manage  their  own  dairying  establishments  without  the 
aid  of  scientific  theories  and  a  ration  is  compounded  by  them 
which  yields  a  given  number  of  quarts  of  milk  per  year  with 
considerable  profit  to  all  interested.  They  forget  that  the 


RATIONS    FOR    MILCH    COWS.  39 

very  proportion  of  which  their  ration  consists  has  not  been 
determined  by  them  as  they  imagine,  but  in  reality  approaches 
in  some  form  or  another  a  standard  that  was  the  outcome  of 
theoretical  consideration.  Let  the  fodder  be  changed,  and  the 
practical  man  will  then  be  only  too  glad  to  consult  with  an 
agronomist  to  know  just  how  much  coarse  by-fodder  is  to  be 
fed  to  meet  the  requirements  of  his  special  case.  It  is  not  alone 
sufficient  to  get  together  fodders  that  w?ill  give  satisfactory  yields 
of  milk  and  butter,  but  these  results  must  be  accomplished  in 
the  most  economical  way.  It  may  often  be  cheaper  to  purchase 
certain  fodders  than  to  use  in  excess  what  happens  to  be  on 
hand  at  the  period  of  feeding,  the  cost  of  which  rations  may 
vary  from  10  cents  to  35  cents  per  diem.  It  may  be  more 
profitable  to  spend  25  cents  upon  a  cow's  ration,  than  it  is  to 
save  15  cents  by  using  fodders  not  suited  to  the  special  case 
under  consideration.  While  in  most  calculations  very  little 
account  is  taken  of  the  manurial  value  of  the  droppings,  these 
in  reality,  if  properly  collected,  will  represent  nearly  one-half  of 
the  original  cost  of  the  ration,  which  in  dollars  and  cents 
means,  that  if  this  manure  had  been  purchased,  it  would 
be  worth  in  itself  one-half,  and  frequently  one-third,  of  the 
original  cost  of  the  feeding  stuffs  used.  For  many  districts 
this  value  of  manure  has  but  a  secondary  importance,  at  least 
for  the  present,  and  it  is  unnecessary  to  take  it  into  consider- 
ation. 

While  the  principal  authorities,  such  as  Ku'hn  and  Wolff, 
differ  as  to  standard  rations,  there  is  not  so  much  variance  in 
their  theories  as  would  at  first  appear.  They  each  admit  that 
a  certain  number  of  pounds  of  organic  matter,  protein,  etc., 
must  be  fed.  The  Wolff  rules  are  not  so  elastic  as  those  of 
Ku'hn;  but  practical  experiments  have  shown  that  they  both 
have  advantages  and  disadvantages,  and  neither  of  them  takes 
into  consideration  the  individual  characteristics  of  the  animal 
being  fed.  While  the  Wolff  tables  have  been  more  generally 
adopted  than  those  of  Kiihn,  practical  experiments  of  the  dairy- 
ing associations  of  the  United  States  show  that  the  standard 
rations  used  and  determined  from  long  experience,  are  in  reality 
nearer  those  of  Kiihn  than  Wolff. 


40 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


COWS. 


One  hundred  ra-  The  University  of  Wisconsin  has  collected  one  hundred 
tions  tor  milch  rations  of  dairy  cows  in  the  different  parts  of  the  country.*  A 
synopsis  of  these  rations  arranged  according  to  States  is  shown 
herewith.  When  they  are  compared  with  the  Wisconsin  stand- 
ard, they  are  found  in  some  way  to  be  faulty  in  their  com- 
binations. Corn  silage  and  wheat  bran  are  the  most  popu- 
lar fodders  used.  These  are  followed  by  mixed  hay,  corn  meal 
and  linseed  meal. 

The  nutritive  ratios,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  Pacific  States,  are  very  nearly  what  they 
should  be. 

COMPOSITION  01*  ONE  HUNDRED  RATIONS  FC«  DAIRY  Cows. 


Dry 
matter. 

DIGESTIBLE  MATTER. 

Nutr. 
Katio. 

Protein. 

Carb. 
hydr. 

Fat. 

Total. 

24.28 
24.65 
22.97 
25.79 
23.48 
30.81 
21.60 
21.57 

2,0 
2.27 
1.97 

2.08 
2.CO 
3.12 
2.68 
1.76 

13.19 
13.68 
12.78 
13.79 
12.14 
15.39 
10.54 
11.69 

.75 
.82 
.72 
.68 
1.05 
.79 
.55 
.63 

16.04 
16.77 
15.47 
16.55 
15.19 
19.30 
13.77 
14.08 

1:7.1 
1:6.8 
1:7.3 
1:7.3 
1:7.2 
1:5.5 
1:4.4 
1:7.4 

Middle  States  

North  Central  States  

The  average  annual  yield  of  milk  and   butter  for  the  2,921 
cows  fed  on  the  above  rations  was  6,314  Ibs.  and  303  Ibs.  per 
head  respectively;  the  general  average  of  fat  in  herd  milk  was 
4.59  per  cent.     After  a  careful  study  of  the  question,  we  must 
Requirements   admit  that  our  cows  need  more  fat  and  carbohydrates  than  the 
of  American    European  standards  call  for.     This  may  be  readily  understood  by 
cows  as  com-  reason  of  the  severity  of  our  climate,  which  demands  more  heat- 
forming  elements  to  maintain  the  caloric  of  the  body.     In  most 


European. 


*  See  Bulletin  No.  38. 


FAULTY    RATIONS.  41 

of  the  dairying  centers  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  States,  snow 
is  on  the  ground  several  months  of  the  year,  and  the  requisites, 
under  these  circumstances,  must  differ  as  regards  winter 
feeding  from  those  at  centers  where  most  of  the  experiments 
upon  the  digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs  have  been  made,  in 
fact  where  the  nucleus  of  the  entire  science  originated.  It 
must  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  that  the  standard  we  have  The  standard 
adopted  is  simply  a  guiding  basis  for  scientific  feeding.  It  is  ad°Pte()- 
for  the  farmer  to  determine  within  what  limits  the  individual 
characteristics  of  a  special  environment  are  suited  to  the  cow 
being  fed.  It  is  important,  however,  not  to  be  too  hasty  in 
drawing  conclusions,  as  a  reasonable  number  of  days  must 
elapse  before  the  animal  under  consideration  can  come  under 
the  entire  influence  of  its  new  ration. 

By  the  use  of  special  tables  for  computing  rations*  for  farm  Special  tables, 
animals,  the  work  is  much  simplified.     Many  of  the  detailed 
calculations  are  done  away  with,  and  only  the  results  are  given; 
hence  by  their  use  there  is  a  considerable  saving  of  time. 

In  calculating  a  ration,  the  main  object  in  view  is  to  combine 
several  feeding  stuffs  so  that  their  total  dry  and  digestible  mat- 
ter shall  be  near  a  standard  accepted  as  a  basis.  To  attain  the 
result  in  view,  one  must  make  a  number  of  trials,  reaching  the 
desired  conditions  only  after  several  substitutions  and  alterations. 
Many  of  the  rations  used  for  cattle  feeding  are  by  no  means  Faulty  rations, 
standard,  and  will  not  bear  examination.  For  example,  on 
many  dairying  farms  in  California,  100  Ibs.  of  residuum  cos- 
settes,  15  Ibs.  hay  and  5  Ibs.  barley  per  1,000  Ibs.  live  weight 
are  used.  This  ration  has  the  following  percentage  of  dry  and 
digestible  matter : 

*The  tables  used  are  to  be  found  in  Part  Six  of  this  volume. 


42  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

COMPOSITION  or  BATION  No.  1,  FED  TO  CALIFORNIA  DAIRY  Cows. 


Dry 

matter. 

Protein. 

Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
and  fat. 

Total. 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 

100  Ibs.  residuum  cossettes* 

20.8    Ibs. 
12.95  " 
4.45  " 
38.00  Ibs. 
24.5     " 

0.6    Ibs. 
1.02    " 
0.43    " 

7.  3*  Ibs. 
5.94    " 
3.46    " 

7.9    Ibs. 
6.96    " 
3.89   " 

1:12 
1:5.8 
1:7.9 
1:8 
1:6.8 

5  lh<?    barlpv. 

Total  

2.05  Ibs. 
22      " 

16.70  Ibs. 
14.9     " 

18.75  Ibs.' 
17.1      « 

While  the  total  digestible  matter  is  in  excess  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin standard,  the  total  dry  matter  is  out  of  rational  proportion, 
and  the  ration  taken  as  a  whole  is  too  wide. 

Another  example  taken  from  the  same  State  is  of  interest.  A 
dairyman  writes  us  that  he  gives  to  his  cows  a  daily  ration  con- 
sisting of  80  Ibs.  fresh  or  siloed  cossettes,  6  Ibs.  corn  and  cob 
meal,  and  6  Ibs.  hay. 

COMPOSITION  OF  RATION  No.  2,  FED  TO  CALIFORNIA  DAIRY  Cows. 


Dry 

mutter. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates 
and  fat. 

Total. 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 

&Q  lV>«j    pnwpttps                               8  0    Ibs 

0.48    Ibs. 
0.264    '• 
0.408   " 

5.84  Ibs. 
3.99    " 
2.36   l' 

6.32  Ibs. 
4.254  u 

2.768  " 

1:12 
1:15 
1:5.8 

6  Ibs.  corn  and  cob  meal  ••     5.1      " 

Tntal                               .    Is  %)    Ibs 

1.152  Ibs. 

12.  19  Ibs. 

13.3421bs. 

1:10 

This  ration  is  certainly  not  to  be  recommended,  as  not  a  single 
portion  of  it  is  up  to  the  desired  standard,  yet  it  appears  to  be 
in  practical  use. 


MANNER    OF    CALCULATING    A    RATION. 


43 


\Ve  shall  now  give  a  general  idea  of  how  a  farmer  may  cal-  Manner  of  calcu- 
culate  a  ration.  No  technical  skill  is  required,  only  very  careful  latinfl  a  ration- 
handling  of  the  data  contained  in  the  tables  previously  referred  to. 

In  the  present  example,  we  may  suppose  that  a  farmer  has 
50  cows  of  an  average  weight  of  1000  Ibs.,  and  that  all  condi- 
tions are  favorable  for  cattle  feeding ;  also  that  the  winter 
feeding  lasts  from  November  to  May,  we  may  say  200  days, 
and  that  the  barn  contains  40,000  Ibs.  clover  hay  and  70,000 
Ibs.  oat  straw.  Residuum  cossettes  have  been  obtained  at 
the  beet-sugar  factory  and  siloed,  the  quantity  being  200  tons 
or  440,000  Ibs.  As  70  tons  of  beets  offered  to  the  factory  have 
been  refused,  they  must  also  be  kept  cturing  the  winter,  and 
represent  154,000  Ibs.  Under  the  best  circumstances,  it  is  not 
desirable  to  consume  all  the  hay  on  hand,  but  for  the  present 
we  may  simply  suppose  that  it  is  all  fed,  other  fodders  being 
put  aside  for  spring  feeding.  The  40,000  Ibs.  clover  hay  to  be 
consumed  in  200  days  means  200  Ibs.  per  diem  or  4  Ibs.  per 
oow.  In  the  same  manner  the  consumption  of  oat  straw 
should  be  7  Ibs.  per  diem,  44  Ibs.  cossettes,  and  15  Ibs.  of  beets. 

If  we  should  use  only  what  is  on  hand,  the  daily  ration  for 
each  cow  would  be  as  follows: 

COMPOSITION  OF  SUPPOSITIOUS  RATION  FOR  DAIRY  Cows. 


Dry 

matter. 

DIGESTIBLE. 

!                 | 
j  Carbohy-  ! 

v^,^         drates'         TV 

Ratio. 
•1 

0.272  Ibs. 


X  ±l' 


1.684  Ibs.   1.856  Ibs. 


4  Ibs.  clover  hav 3.40  Ibs. 

7  Ibs.  oat  straw 6.37   "     0.084    "  i  2.828  "     2.912 

44  Ibs.  cossettes 4.40   "     0.264    "      3.212"     3.476" 


15  Ibs.  beets 1.95   "     0.165 


1.560 


1.725  " 


Total 16.12  Ibs.   0.7&5  Ibs.    9.184  Ibs.    9.969  Ibs.     1:11 

Standard    24.5      "      2.2        "    14.9       "    17.1        "       1:6.8 


Difference   8.38  Ibs.    1.415  Ibs.    5.716  Ibs. '  7.131  Ibs. 


44 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAK    BEETS,  SUGAR,   ETC. 


The  fodders  to  be  added  must  make  up  for  this,  deficiency , 
and  the  kind,  depend  upon  the  market  price  and'  the  locality  in 
which  the  farm  is  situated.  It  must  be  noticed  that  the  ration 
as  it  exists  is  entirely  too  wide,  hence  there  should  be  added  a 
fodder  with  narrow  ratio.  The  tables  show  that  9  Ibs.  of  wheat 
middlings  will  very  nearly  furnish  what  is  needed,  and  as  they 
may  be  had  at  a  low  price  they  may  be  used. 

MODIFICATION  OF  ABOVE  RATION.     • 


Previous  ration 

9  Ibs.  wheat  middlings 


Total 


Dry 
matter. 


Protein. 


Carboliy- 
hydrates       Total, 
and  fat. 


16.12  Ibs. i  0.785  Ibs. I  9.184 Ibs. 


7.92 


24.04 


1.152 


5.463 


9.969  Ibs. 
6.615  " 


1:4.7 


1.937    "  !14.647  "    16.684  "  i  1:7.5 


The  ratio  is  still  rather  wide,  and  there  remains  0.27  Ibs. 
protein  to  be  furnished.  We  must  select  a  fodder  that  will 
have  a  low  nutritive  ratio,  and  one  pound  of  linseed  meal  meets 
the  essentials: 

FURTHER  MODIFICATION  OF  ABOVE  RATION. 


Carbohy- 
drates    |     Total, 
and  fat. 


Previous  ration |  24.04  Ibs. 

1  Ib.  linseed  meal '.  j      .90  "    j  0.282 

-|  ;| 

2.219 


1.937  Ibs.  J14. 647  Ibs. 


Total 


24.94 


j  0.464  " 

ii5.ni  " 


16.  584  Ibs. 
0.746  " 


17.330 


1:1.6 


1:6.8 


Without  the  use  of  well  arranged  tables  considerable  guess 
work  must  be  restored  to,  but  by  their  use  the  problem  is 
solved  almost  at  a  glance.  In  the  calculations  one  could  enter 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  45 

into  great  detail  as  to  the  cost  of  the  ration  per  diem.  With 
pressed  cossettes  from  the  factory  a  very  important  portion  of 
the  nutrients  is  obtained  at  a  comparatively  low  figure.  In  the 
case  we  have  supposed,  the  450  Ibs.  of  w^heat  middlings  and  50 
Ibs.  of  linseed  meal  per  diem  wrould  have  to  be  purchased,  and 
should  be  on  hand  as  soon  as  possible.  It  means  the  purchase 
of  450  x  200  or  90,000  Ibs.  with  10,000  Ibs.  linseed  meal,  the 
latter  costing  not  more  than  $20  a  ton  and  the  former  $18  per 
ton.  The  money  outlay  for  the  farmer  is  certainly  less  than 
81,000,  from  which  he  has  10,000  rations,  meaning  10  cents  per 
ration.  As  the  cossettes  are  had  free  or  at  a  cost  of  50  cents 
per  ton,  they  enter  into  the  ration  for  less  than  one  cent.  As 
the  beets  cost  the  farmer  at  least  $3.00  a  ton,  they  enter  the 
ration  for  less  than  two  cents.  All  facts  considered,  the  daily 
ration  consisting  of  4  Ibs.  clover  hay,  7  Ibs.  oat  straw,  44  Ibs. 
sugar-beet  cossettes  and  15  Ibs.  of  beets  should  cost  less  than  13 
to  14  cents  per  diem. 

The  feeding  of  steers,  lambs,  etc.,  offers  no  difficulty;  if  their 
rations  consist  of  dried  or  siloed  cossettes,  or  even  of  the  various 
molasses  or  sugar  fodders,  the  calculation  is  done  in  exactly  the 
same  manner.  The  standard  ration  for  each  animal  differs. 
The  question  of  economy  in  the  use  of  the  by-fodder  added 
must  be  separately  calculated,  and  would  take  us  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  present  writing. 

Sheep  Feeding. 

The  beet  pulp  utilization  has  given  an  enormous  impulse  to    General  con- 
sheep  raising  in  the  United  States.     Xo  less  than  three  instances    sWeratl'ons- 
may  be  cited  in  which  the  lots  are  30,000  each,  hence  the  im- 
portance of  having  a  general  outline  of  the  requirements  for  the 
successful  care-taking  of   these  annuals  at   various  periods  of-   • 
their  growth.     As  the  milk  of  ewes  is  seldom  used  for  man  in     • 
thjs  country,  its  characteristics  need  not  be  discussed   for  the 
present.     Several  of  our  experimental  stations  have  taken  up 
the  question  of  comparing  the  results  obtained  in  lamb  feed- 
ing with  cows'    milk   and   with    regular   rations   made    up  of 
various  feeding  stuffs,  and  decided  in  favor  of  the  milk.     As 
milch  cows  are  usually  fed  in  large  number  with  residuum  beet 


46       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

cossettes,  the  milk  required  for  the  special  purpose  of  lamb 
fattening  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  generally  in  mid-winter, 
may  be  had  at  a  very  low  cost,  and  almost  defies  all  other 
competition. 

During  the  very  early  days  of  the  lamb's  existence  it  had 
better  depend  upon  its  mother  for  its  subsistence,  and  the  im- 
portance of  having  the  ewes  well  looked  after  is  self  evident. 
A  suitable  diet  is  needed,  and  express  orders  should  be  given 
not  to  permit  shearing,  as  experiments  show  that  this  is  gener- 
ally followed  by  a  decrease  in  the  flow  of  milk.  However, 
when  from  local  reasons  there  is  a  marked  demand  for  the  wool, 
the  secreting  powers  of  the  ewes  may  be  restored  after  a  week's 
time  by  the  judicious  introduction  of  certain  feeding  stuffs  in 
the  ration. 

The  age  of  the  animal  has  an  important  influence  on  the 
possible  money  profits  that  are  to  be  derived  from  fattening,  the 
young  animals  being,  in  the  long  run,  more  profitable.  * 

In  whatever  State  sheep  feeding  with  residuum  pulp  is  prac- 
ticed, one  is  to  a  certain  extent  dependent  upon  the  breeds  that 
the  locality  can  furnish.  Certain  breeds  are  more  profitable  than 
others.  For  breeders  who  purpose  to  continue  with  lambs  from 
year  to  year,  it  may  be  considered  advantageous  to  carry  out 
certain  comparative  breed  tests.  In  order  to  save  money  and 
time,  experiments  have  been  made  with  self-feeding  appliances, 
the  grain  being  placed  in  a  special  upper  receptacle,  and  falling 
by  gravity  as  the  hopper  connecting  it  with  the  trough  becomes 
empty.  The  sheep  have  in  this  manner  food  ad  libitum.  These 
devices  have  never  been  up  to  expectations,  and  are  not  to  be 
recommended. 

Mistake  of  \ye  have  already  mentioned  in  a  general  way  how  the  shear- 
ing influences  the  milk;  in  the  same  way  the  possibilities  of 
fattening  are  lowest  when  the  wool  has  been  removed.  In  this 
respect  the  experiments  of  Craig  of  the  Wisconsin  station  have 
brought  to  light  some  important  conclusions,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  that  shorn  lambs  eat  more,  drink  less  water 
and  make  30  per  cent,  less  gain  than  the  unshorn,  hence  when 
fattening  is  the  object  in  view  the  shearing,  and  even  increase  of 
wool,  is  objectionable. 


SHEEP    CHARACTERISTICS.  47 

By  shearing  in  the  fall  of  the  year  and  again  in  the  spring 
more  wool  is  obtained  than  from  a  single  spring  shearing,  but 
the  market  value  of  the  two  clippings  is  not  any  greater  than  of 
the  single  clipping,  in  which  the  fibres  of  the  fleece  are  larger. 
When  the  lambs  are  to  be  fattened  during  three  or  four  winter 
months,  there  appears  to  be  no  practical  advantage  in  fall  shear- 
ing. A  rather  surprising  result  obtained  in  this  question  of 
sheep  fattening  is,  that  unlike  the  steer,  very  little  advantage  is 
to  be  gained  by  in-door  feeding.  Evidently  to  make  up  for  the 
difference  of  temperature  in  the  two  cases,  more  food  is  required 
to  obtain  the  same  results.  Whatever  be  the  success  in  feeding, 
there  will  always  follow  a  certain  shrinkage  when  sent  to  their 
destination,  and  the  question  is  open  to  discussion  whether  in 
the  long  run  it  would  not  be  more  profitable  to  have  the  stock 
yards  in  the  direct  vicinity,  especially  as  the  resulting  blood 
could  be  combined  with  the  molasses  and  cossettes  to  form  part 
of  the  regular  daily  rations. 

There  is  very  little  available  information  as  regards  the  exact  Beet  cossettes 
advantage  of  introducing  beet  cossettes  on  an  extended  scale  in  and  the  woolt 
sheep  feeding,  but  the  results  in  Nebraska  show  in  a  general 
way  that  the  advantages  are  considerable.  Just  whether  it  is 
advantageous  to  use  corn,  wheat,  etc.,  depends  upon  the  locality 
in  which  the  feeding  is  done,  and  when  the  beet  cossette  feeding 
has  become  very  general  in  its  applications,  we  are  convinced  it 
will  completely  change  all  existing  modes,  resulting  in  greater 
economy  and  facility.  Certain  facts  always  remain,  whatever 
be  the  mode  of  feeding.  A  long  series  of  investigations  will  be 
needed  to  determine  exactly  what  influence  cossettes  have  on 
the  quality  of  the  wool;  however,  in  this  respect,  as  every  one 
knows,  the  environment  has  more  influence  than  the  actual  food 
eaten. 

Among  all  the  animals  the  breeder  has  to  handle,  none  can    sheep  char- 
subsist  on  more  varied  rations  than  can  sheep;  they  evidently    acteristics. 
adapt  themselves  to  any  circumstances  that  may  arise.     The 
general  characteristic  of  the  sheep  is  that  its  general  condition 
improves  when  in  flocks  of  several  thousands.     When  these  ex- 
tensive flocks  existed  some  years  since,  it  always  necessitated  a 
large  area  of  ground  in  some  corn  State,  and  the  experienced 


48       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

care  of  a  shepherd.  Now  with  an  abundant  supply  of  residuum 
Requisite  feeding  beet  cossettes,  special  quarters  are  provided  which  occupy  a  corn- 
space  and  other  paratively  limited  space.'  Professor  Henry*  discussing  this 
essentials.  question  says:  "A  ewe  weighing  100  Ibs.  will  require  about  ten 
square  feet  of  ground  space,  while  one  weighing  150  Ibs.  should 
have  15  square  feet.  A  space  40x40  feet  square  will  therefore 
accommodate  about  160  sheep  weighing  100  pounds  each,  or 
100  weighing  160  pounds,  not  allowing  for  feed  racks.  Provide 
15  inches  running  length  of  feed  rack  for  each  sheep  weighing 
100  pounds,  and  two  feet  for  those  weighing  200  pounds." 
''Sheep  to  be  profitable  must  be  kept  dry  as  to  coat  and:  feet; 
inattention  to  either  of  these  essentials  will  result  disastrously. 
.  .  .  One  thickness  of  closely-matched  boards  will  make  the 
barn  or  shed  where  sheep  are  confined  sufficiently  warm  in  the 
Northern  States,  except  for  winter  lambs. ' ' 

In  several  efforts  at  sheep  feeding  in  the  United  States,  com- 
ing under  our  notice,  the  flocks  are  simply  collected  together 
regardless  of  their  weight,  size  and  general  characteristics,  and 
the  ultimate  results  obtained  would  certainly  be  disappointing  if 
critically  examined. 

An  enormous  number  of  lambs  die  after  being  born;  the 
early  care  needed  is  frequently  lacking,  as  the  object  in  view  is 
«imply  fattening;  but  this  will  change  in  time  and  the  requisite 
hourly  care-taking  will  be  given.  The  American  sheep  and 
lamb  cossette  feeding  is  generally  over  before  the  time  for  past- 
uring has  arrived,  and  even  if  this  were  not  so,  the  pasturage  in 
most  cases  where  factories  are  located  would  not  be  sufficient  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  case.  However,  in  this  respect 
there  is  much  to  be  said,  for  in  cases  where  the  cossettes  have 
beep  properly  siloed  the  feeding  can  continue  well  on  into  the 
spring,  the  flock  being  removed  when  the  desired  fattening  limit 
has  been  reached, f  and  it  is  then  recommended  to  allow  the 
lambs  to  have  the  full  run  of  the  fields,  returning  to  their 
mothers  through  smaller  spaces  than  the  ewe  can  pass.  As  the 


/See  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  p.  516. 

t  The  increase  according  to  the  best  authorities  is  one  pound  live  weight  per 


10  Ibs.  dry  substance  fed. 

. 


SHEEP    FATTENING.  49 

lambs  may  be  born  at  any  period,  it  is  well  to  adopt  the  system 
of  placing  something  tempting  for  the  lambs.  As  regards  the 
quantity  of  water  to  be  allowed  sheep,  authorities  differ,  some 
declaring  the  less  water  the  better,  some  that  a  few  quarts  daily 
are  sufficient.  Too  little  attention  has  hitherto  been  given  to  the 
feeding  troughs,  which  should  be  constantly  cleansed,  and  the 
cossette  ration  not  eaten  removed  and  replaced  by  fresh. 

In  the  general  rush  at  sheep  feeding  on  an  extended  scale  importance  of 
with  the  view  to  utilizing  cossette   fresh  from  the  factory,  too  sheep  selection, 
little  attention  is  given  to  medical  examination  of  the  animals 
to  be  fed,  and  the  result  is  that  disease  soon  spreads  and  plays 
havoc  among  the  flock. 

Just  as  is  the  case  with  milch  cows,  sheep  must  be  fed  at  reg-  Sheep  fattening, 
ular  intervals  and  treated  with  constant  kindness;  they  become 
accustomed  to  special  attendants,  and  they  alone  had  better 
handle  the  question  of  feeding.  In  whatever  State  the  sheep 
feeding  is  carried  on,  there  are  always  certain  essentials  for  the 
market;  but  just  what  these  are  would  carry  us  beyond  the  scope 
of  the  present  writing.  The  fattening  proper  cannot  commence 
until  sheep  have  been  not  only  weaned,  but  have  got  their  full 
set  of  teeth. 

In  countries  presenting  passable  conditions  the  sheep  grazing 
can  commence  when  the  cattle  leave  off.  It  is  important  that 
the  sheep  be  not  allowed  to  walk  distances  out  of  proportion 
to  the  food  gathered,  otherwise  the  exercise  would  not  lead  to 
very  beneficial  results  as  far  as  the  farmer  is  concerned.  Evi- 
dently the  best  meat  is  obtained  from  sheep  that  are  familiar 
with  good  pasturage  on  lands  more  or  less  charged  with  salts,  like 
those  near  the  seashore,  which  frequently  offer  the  best  results. 

The  fattening  of  sheep  is  a  much  more  difficult  process  than 
that  of  cattle,  owing  to  the  individual  characteristics  of  each. 
They  must  be  classified  not  only  according  to  weight,  but  also 
in  regard  to  special  characteristics.  The  rule  is  to  give  stimu- 
lating food,  so  as  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible  consumption 
per  diem. 

When    rams    have   commenced   to    give    evidence   of    their 
maturity  they  require  a  very  different  ration  from  sheep  that 
have  been  altered  or  females. 
4 


50  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

The  varying  requisites  in  sheep  raising  render  their  profitable 
breeding  most  difficult.  It  is  pointed  out  that  when  conditions 
permit,  that  sheep,  even  in  summer,  be  not  allowed  to  leave 
the  fold  on  empty  stomachs.  The  change  from  dry  fodder  to 
pasturage  should  not  be  accomplished  too  rapidly.  A  good 
custom  that  seems  to  prevail  is  that  of  giving  sheep  plenty 
of  exercise  even  in  cold  weather.  The  principal  difference  in 
fodders  to  be  given  to  older  sheep  and  types,  previously  men- 
tioned, is  that  the  percentage  of  coarser  feeds  is  to  be  aug- 
mented and  the  concentrated  diminished.  The  total  per  diem 
is  diminished  and  carbohydrates  increased. 

While  oats  are  objectionable  as  a  general  ration,  in  this 
special  case  they  render  excellent  service;  as  they  have  an  ex- 
citing tendency  on  the  procreating  organs,  their  introduction  as 
a  ration  must  be  effected  gradually,  just  to  take  the  place  of 
bran;  and  when  the  greatest  effect  has  been  produced  the 
ration  is  withdrawn  little  by  little.  In  all  casss  the  question  of 
age  is  an  important  factor. 

Raisers  of  sheep  have  many  theories  that  are  not  altogether 
in  accordance  with  practice.  Ample  feeding  for  sheep  is  as 
important  as  it  is  for  cattle. 

Unlike  cattle,  there  is  no  special  time  for  sheep  to  be  born, 
and  it  occurs  just  as  frequently  in  summer  as  in  winter.  The 
rations  during  the  two  periods  must,  however,  differ;  in  summer 
there  is  the  natural  pasturage,  and  what  sheep  can  utilize  is 
very  different  from  that  for  cows.  The  question  remains  to  be 
solved  just  within  what  limits  lands  are  suited  to  sheep. 
Swampy  low  lands  do  not  give  satisfactory  results.  The  lands 
should  not  be  too  far  from  the  fold  and  farm  to  furnish  suffi- 
cient food  to  thoroughly  satisfy  their  appetites  almost  twice  a 
day.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  best  method  for  determin- 
ing the  quantity  of  grass,  etc.,  needed,  is  to  weigh  a  certain 
number  of  sheep  before  and  after  their  feeding,  by  which  means 
one  could  ascertain  the  average  consumption.  When  winter 
feeding  is  considered  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  sheep  during 
gestation  have  not  attained  their  full  growth,  and  should  be  fed 
accordingly.  Very  coarse  fodders  are  not  suitable  for  sheep; 
too  highly  fermented  food  is  also  objectionable;  excitable 


SHEEP    FATTENING.  51 

fodders  are  very  objectionable,  and  the  nutritive  ratio  should 
be  1 :4,  with  at  least  60  per  cent,  moisture.  Beets  give  excel- 
lent results,  and  should  in  all  cases  be  mixed  with  chopped 
straw,  etc.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  exact  quantity  of 
fodder  to  be  given;  the  best  guide  with  sheep  is  the  amount 
they  refuse. 

Great  advantages  are  to  be  derived  by  allowing  sheep  to  have  all 
the  milk  from  the  mother  that  they  need.  The  health  of  a  sucking 
lamb  depends  upon  the  health  of  the  mother.  The  discussions 
of  this  question  are  outside  the  province  of  the  present  writing. 

One  sheep  should  never  be  allowed  to  feed  more  than  one 
lamb  at  a  time,  and  in  special  cases  the  use  of  a  bottle  may  give 
excellent  results;  two  quarts  of  milk  per  diem  is  readily  con- 
sumed by  an  average  healthy  lamb. 

Good  and  well  selected  fodder  comes  next  in  importance. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  fodders  be  not  too  rich 
and  dry.  The  lamb  as  well  as  the  mother  under  such  rations 
would  soon  die. 

During  very  rainy  weather  the  grass  and  general  pasturage 
contain  so  much  water  that  it  is  frequently  found  possible  to 
supplement  their  food  in  fold.  The  sucking  should  be  repeated 
four  times  a  day  (at  first  much  oftener),  and  during  the  interval 
the  mother  has  ample  time  to  recuperate.  Arrange  so  that  the 
mother  and  young  one  are  separated  by  a  partition  with  doors 
large  enough  for  the  lamb  to  pass,  but  not  the  mother.  The 
first  tooth  appears  after  four  months,  and  the  weaning  should 
then  begin.  One  meal  of  oil  cake,  etc.,  is  furnished  during  the 
interval  of  their  sucking.  These  meals  become  more  numerous, 
and  within  a  month  the  weaning  should  be  complete. 

It  may  be  considered  a  mistake  to  make  a  distinction  between 
the  requirements  of  male,  female  or  altered  sheep.  The  object 
in  all  cases  is  the  same,  that  of  securing  in  one  year  the  most 
complete  development  possible. 

The  French  authorities  are  strongly  opposed  to  the  use  of  oats 
in  sheep  rations,  as  this  fodder  has  a  very  exciting  tendency 
and  as  a  result  a  very  thinning  effect.  The  summer  pasturage 
is  very  much  the  same  as  it  is  with  sheep.  The  rations  should 
be  as  much  like  fresh  grass  as  possible. 


'V2       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

Feeding  Working  Animals. 

Theoretical  con-  The  theories  relating  to  the  feeding  of  working  animals 
siderations.  have  un(jergOne  many  changes  within  recent  years.  For  a  long 
while  it  was  admitted  that  muscular  exertion  always  meant  a 
wear  and  tear  upon  the  organs  of  the  body  in  which  the  ex- 
penditure of  protein  was  several  times  greater  than  during 
periods  of  rest.  Experiments  by  Voit  have  long  since  demon- 
strated that  the  consumption  of  albuminoids  is  not  necessarily 
greater  during  work  than  it  is  in  rest.  Evidently  during  work 
the  circulation  is  more  active  which  necessitates  a  greater  con- 
sumption of  protein  in  special  directions,  but  there  soon  follows 
a  compensation.  On  the  other  hand,  during  the  activity  there  is 
necessarily  greater  consumption  of  fat  than  during  rest,  and  also 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  during  this  period  more  oxygen 
enters  the  lungs,  the  combustion  is  greater  and  the  caloric  gen- 
erated is  increased;  this  is  necessarily  followed  by  an  increased 
perspiration  and  ultimate  loss  of  animal  heat.  Consequently 
efforts  to  fatten  an  animal  doing  work  would  be  folly.  The 
subject  continues  to  be  constantly  discussed  and  authorities  do 
not  agree.  Many  of  the  experiments  made  upon  dogs  have  led 
to  some  results  of  more  or  less  importance.  The  writer  con- 
siders it  unnecessary  to  give  numerous  tables,  showing  that  the 
consumption  of  protein  is  entirely  independent  of  work  done  as 
mentioned  in  the  foregoing. 

Interesting  experiments  by  Henneberg  upon  sheep  show  that 
the  muscular  expenditure  due  to  mastication  and  rumination 
have  an  important  influence  upon  the  loss  of  carbonic  acid. 
Animals  receiving  their  rations  in  the  regular  way  threw  out 
from  the  body  54  per  cent,  of  total  carbonic  acid  during  the  day; 
when  fed  at  night,  56  per  cent,  of  total  carbonic  acid  was  thrown 
off  during  the  twelve  hours  of  feeding.  Numerous  experi- 
ments upon  horses  offer  for  our  readers  matter  which  is  for- 
eign to  our  subject.  As  regards  this  question,  it  is  interesting  to 
mention  that  some  authorities  pretend  that  as  the  consumption 
of  fat  increases  with  work  done,  it  is  to  this  source  we  must  look 
for  muscular  force.  As  the  work  done  has  its  equivalent  in  the 
excess  of  heat  produced,  there  is  possibly  a  transformation  of 
heat  into  work  exactly  as  in  the  steam  engine.  Heat  comes 


THEORETICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  53 

from  the  fuel  consumed,  which  caloric  is  subsequently  trans- 
formed into  power  in  the  receiving  receptacle.  From  this  it  is 
concluded  that  it  is  mainly  from  the  carbohydrates  that  heat  is 
obtained,  and  the  resulting  force  is  only  20  per  cent,  of  the  total 
caloric,  which  results  are  however  superior  to  the  very  best 
mechanical  appliances.  This  is  only  theory  and  does  not  agree 
with  the  facts  of  the  case.  If  the  forces  of  the  body  represented 
a  simple  transformation  of  animal  heat,  it  would  be  possible  to 
keep  on  working  night  and  day  without  the  least  sensation 
of  fatigue. 

If  there  is  greater  heat  produced  during  work  than  in  rest, 
this  is  compensated  by  the  increased  perspiration  which  estab- 
lishes an  equilibrium.  Some  years  since  it  was  declared  that 
when,  feeding  animals  during  excessive  work,  their  rations  must 
contain  considerable  protein,  and  a  comparatively  small  amount 
of  carbohydrates.  The  function  of  protein  is  not  to  produce 
power,  but  it  is  essential  for  muscular  activity. 

Recent  experiments,  on  the  other  hand,  show  that  carbo- 
hydrates, such  as  sugar,  actually  mean  strength.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  animals  store  up  a  certain  amount  of  power  in 
various  forms.  Max  Ru'bner  has  demonstrated  that  dynamic 
equivalents  of  nutrients  are  almost  exactly  equal  to  their 
caloric  equivalents.  It  is,  however,  to  Stohmann  that  the 
credit  must  be  given  of  this  interesting  discovery.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  that  100  parts  of  fat  have  the  following  equivalents: 

EQUIVALENTS  FOR  100  PARTS  OF  FAT. 


Number  obtained 
directly. 

Calculated. 

\Ivosin            

005 

213 

—  4424  calories. 

Starch  

232 

229 

—  4416       " 

Cane  sugar              ... 

23- 

235 

—  4001        " 

Glucose    

256 

255 

—  3692       " 

54  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,   ETC. 

These  figures  show  that  the  different  carbohydrates  men- 
tioned agree  almost  mathematically.  Stohmann  admits  that 
the  thermogenic  values  "  of  one  kilo  of  albumin,  fat  and  starch 
are  represented  by  5715,  9431  and  4116  calories."  It  is  evident 
that  the  dynamic  and  thermogenic  equivalents  are  different. 

The  factor  2.44  as  admitted  between  fat  and  starch  is  too 
high.  One  gram  of  organic  substances  of  vegetable  origin,  such 
as  rye  bread,  represents  3960  calories.  While  fats  and  carbo- 
hydrates have  important  functions  to  fulfill  in  the  production 
of  power,  the  protein  elements  undergoing  decomposition  in  the 
body  are  compared  by  Voit  to  a  constant  flow  of  water,  the 
amount  escaping  through  the  mill-race  being  perfectly  inde- 
pendent of  the  energy  obtained.  Other  experiments  appear  to 
show  that  the  decomposition  of  protein  means  an  absorption  of 
water,  and  the  ultimate  splitting  up  of  the  protein  molecules 
means  the  formation  of  urea  and  fat. 

Considerable  albumin  in  the  fodder  helps  without  doubt  in 
the  production  of  muscular  energy;  when  work  is  continued 
for  a  long  period  the  nutritive  ratio  must  be  more  contracted 
than  when  at  rest.  While  indirectly  the  decomposition  of 
protein  in  the  body  may  be  considered  as  a  source  of  power,  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  decomposition  continues  even 
during  sleep. 

An  abundant  supply  of  nutritive  substances  is  not  alone 
sufficient  to  produce  work ;  the  body  of  the  animal  fed  must  be 
in  a  good  healthy  condition,  otherwise  there  is  only  a  partial 
assimilation.  A  wreak  animal  with  a  poor  muscular  organism 
would  give  very  poor  work,  even  when  well  fed,  as  compared 
to  one  whose  muscles  are  in  prime  condition.  In  fact,  there 
is  very  much  less  oxygen  stored  up. 

In  this  question  of  the  production  of  work  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  the  muscles  cannot  and  do  not  work  properly  if 
the  gases  evolved  and  wastes  are  not  constantly  removed  from 
the  circulation.  Gouty  and  rheumatic  tendencies  are  important 
examples  of  muscular  activity,  due  to  an  unusual  deposit  of 
lactic  or  uric  acid.  The  theory  now  accepted  is  that  muscular 
force  depends  upon  the  splitting  up  of  some  element  making 
up  the  muscle  rather  than  upon  an  actual  oxidation,  thus  the  de- 


THEORETICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  55 

composition  in  whatever  form  it  may  be  considered  depends  to 
a  certain  extent'  upon  the  storing  up  of  oxygen,  which  remains 
dormant  as  it  were  until  needed.  The  Henneberg  experiments 
show  that  most  of  the  oxygen  is  taken  up  during  the  night,  this 
being  true  not  only  when  the  animal  is  at  rest,  but  also  when 
working.  As  regards  carbonic  acid,  the  reverse  is  true,  viz., 
most  of  the  carbonic  acid  is  thrown  off  during  the  day  and  the 
amount  increases  with  work  done.  An  important  fact  is  that 
the  storing  up  of  oxygen  seems  to  depend  upon  the  amount  of 
protein  fed. 

Muscular  activity  always  means  an  expenditure  of  fat  and 
carbohydrates,  hence  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  importance 
of  a  fodder  containing  a  sufficient  supply  to  meet  almost  any 
emergency.  Additional  fat  is  a  very  important  element  in  the 
production  of  work,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  working 
classes  as  such  depend  so  largely  upon  fatty  foods.  This  sub- 
ject of  production  of  work  from  foods  has  been  reduced  to  a 
science,  and  among  the  most  important  results  in  this  special 
direction  are  those  of  Sanson.  The  problem  is  to  establish  a 
proportion  between  the  work  done  in  raising  one  kilo  one  meter 
high,  and  the  energy  of  a  kilo  of  protein  combined  with  fatty 
substances  and  carbohydrates. 

The  mechanical  equivalent  of  one  kilogram  of  protein  corre- 
sponds to  1,742,500*  kilogrameters  of  work;  and  consequently 
an  animal  fed  can  develop  that  amount  of  work  without  loss  of 
weight.  To  compose  a  ration  that  would  fill  all  the  require- 
ments of  the  case,  the  distance  traveled  in  a  unit  of  time,  the 
effort  consumed,  and  the  total  time  during  which  work  lasts 
must  be  considered. 

If  K  represents  foot  pounds,  P  protein,  and  X  the  number  of 

foot  pounds  that  1  Ib.  of  protein  will  produce,  we  shall  have  the 

j£ 
following  equation:    K  =  P  X  X,  consequently  ~K  =  -.       This 

proportion  is  frequently  termed  the  mechanical  coefficient  of  pro- 
tein. In  experiments  upon  horses,  it  was  shown  that  by  sub- 
tracting from  the  protein  consumed  during  work  the  protein 

*One  kilo  of  protein  =  4,100  calories;  one  calorie  =  425  kilogrameters. 
4,100  X  425  =  1,742,500  kg.  m. 


56       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

consumption  during  rest  we  obtain  the  protein  requisite  for 
work  produced.  In  such  calculations  it  is  well  to  consider  the 
digestible  protein;  in  fact,  upon  general  principles  we  may  admit 
that  the  working  powers  of  an  animal  depend  upon  its  digestive 
activity. 

Again  using  the  above  formula,  we  have: 

Kn=PX  1,742,500. 

Consequently  if  we  have  a  ration  consisting  of  known  fodders 
it  is  possible  to  determine  the  work  it  can  produce.  In  a  few 
words,  the  calculation  consists  in  determining  the  raw  protein  of 
the  ration  and  the  coefficient  of  digestibility. 

Work  done  =  Crude  protein  X  Coeff.  of  digestibility  X  1.742.- 
500.  If  the  work  is  known  in  advance  the  protein  necessary 
may  be  determined  by  a  very  simple  calculation. 

Upon  general  principles  it  must  be  admitted  that  an  animal 
will  not  develop  muscular  force  unless  its  muscles  are  in  good 
condition,  which  means  health.  The  amount  of  albumin  de- 
posited in  the  organs  and  in  the  circulation  must  be  sufficient  to 
supply  the  demands  for  the  production  of  work.  Under  special 
conditions  the  mechanical  energy  developed  may  be  increased 
by  using  a  very  concentrated  ration. 

^e  wor^mg  °f  cows  and  oxen  on  farms  is  not  practiced  in 
this  country  as  in  Europe,  consequently  the  subject  has  for  us 
only  a  secondary  importance.  The  ration  of  an  animal  doing 
work  must  necessarily  differ  from  one  being  stall  fed,  and 
the  appetite  is  greater  owing  to  the  effort  of  nature  to  restore 
tissue  consumed  during  work.  Instead  of  the  standard  given 
for  growing  cattle,  we  can  increase  the  quantity  of  beets  \  Ib. 
per  diem  and  slightly  decrease  the  cotton  seed  cake.  The  pro- 
portion for  each  would  then  be  35  per  cent,  of  total  dry  matter 
furnished  by  beets,  17  per  cent,  hay,  13  per  cent,  wheat,  18  per 
cent,  cotton-seed  cake,  and  18  per  cent,  malt  sprouts.  For  an- 
imals 12  to  18  months  old  and  consuming  18.5  Ibs.  dry  matter 
per  diem  we  should  have  a  ration  as  follows:  Beets  46 
Ibs.,  clover  hay  3.7  Ibs.,  wheat  straw  2.7  Ibs.,  cotton  seed  meal 
3.7  Ibs.,  malt  sprouts  3.7  Ibs.  Under  these  circumstances  there 
would  follow  an  increase  of  weight  of  about  y1^  or  1.8  Ibs.  per 


GENERAL^  REMARKS.  57 

diem;  if  at  the  commencement  of  the  season  the  animal  weighed 
770  Ibs..  its  weight  would  be  after  six  months  about  1,000  Ibs. 

As  many  cows  are  worked  during  their  gestation,  it  is  of  great 
importance  not  to  give  them  beets  that  are  even  slightly  fer- 
mented. It  is  the  custom  on  some  farms  to  prepare  the  ration 
and  allow  it  to  subsequently  ferment,  but  there  is  constant  dan- 
ger under  these  circumstances  of  bringing  about  a  miscarriage. 
Young  oxen  through  this  feeding  may  work  and  gain  in  strength 
and  weight;  the  ration  then  undergoes  a  slight  change,  and  con- 
tains a  heavier  percentage  of  coarser  fodders.  After  the  end  of 
the  third  year  they  attain  their  maximum  working  weight. 
There  are  many  arguments  as  to  the  comparative  advantages  of 
working  an  animal  that  is  to  be  subsequently  fattened,  and 
of  allowing  it  to  remain  idle  for  over  two  years. 

Oxen  when  doing  light  work  do  not  require  very  much  more 
fodder  than  is  needed  for  their  maintenance;  on  the  other  hand, 
if  extra  work  is  demanded  of  them,  it  is  important  to  furnish 
per  1,000  Ibs.  live  weight  about  1.6  Ibs.  protein  and  12  Ibs.  of 
non-nitrogenous  substances,  the  nutritive  ration  being  then, 
1:7.5. 

Rations  in  General. 

The  Wolff  tables  are  calculated  on  a  basis  of  1000  Ibs.  live  General'remarks. 
weight  per  diem.  Several  French  authorities  justly  point  to  the 
fact  that  these  figures  are  not  based  upon  thoroughly  scientific 
facts.  Little  or  no  allowance  is  made  for  the  difference  in  the 
assimilating  powers  of  certain  races  of  large  and  small  animals, 
no  account  is  taken  of  the  age  of  the  cattle  being  fed,  and  there 
is  no  effort  at  economy  of  fodder  used,  when  a  little  more  or 
less  in  certain  cases  would  bring  about  very  different  results 
financially.  It  is  most  difficult  by  using  these  standard  rations 
to  ascertain  their  economic  working.  It  is  also  pointed  out  that 
a  knowledge  of  the  average  temperature  in  the  stables  is  neces- 
sary, and  that  in  reality  the  daily  rations  should  vary  with  the 
ambient  temperature.  When  every  fact  is  considered,  it  re- 
mains to  be  thoroughly  proved  whether  the  best  ration  should 
not  be  governed  by  the  appetite  of  the  animal  being  fed.  We  do 
not  in  our  present  writing  consider  it  worth  our  while  to  enter 
into  those  very  complicated  theories  based  upon  the  caloric  neces- 


58       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

sary  to  keep  up  the  animal's  consumption.  Furthermore  it  was 
proposed  that  the  ration  should  vary  with  each  animal,  as  the 
cube  root  of  the  square  root  of  the  animal's  weight.  All  chest 
measurements  for  weight  of  ration  are  also  very  empirical,  as 
the  expansion  of  the  chest  is  by  no  means  constant  and  varies 
from  minute  to  minute;  a  variation  of  one  inch  in  these  meas- 
urements makes  a  very  considerable  difference  in  the  results 
obtained.  So  all  facts  considered  the  standard  may  be  the  best 
guide.  It  may,  however,  be  desirable  to  have  tables  for  an 
average  weight  and  to  decrease  or  increase  same,  as  may  be, 
remembering  in  all  cases  that  a  small  animal  eats  more,  propor- 
tionately, than  a  large  one  does. 

Standards.  Animals  of  given  weight,  age  and  kind,  are  capable  of  eating 
a  certain  amount  per  diem.  An  average  in  each  case  has  led 
to  certain  standards  upon  which  the  whole  art  of  cattle  feeding 
depends.  Hence  well-arranged  tables  point  out  just  what 
amount  of  protein  and  fatty  substances  should  be  fed  to  cows 
being  milked,  or  cattle  going  through  the  process  of  fattening. 
To  remain  within  rational  limits,  it  is  important  to  be  con- 
stantly watching  the  condition  of  excrements  thrown  out  by 
each  animal  fed,  as  if  it  is  receiving  that  which  it  cannot  digest, 
there  will  soon  be  evidence  of  this  in  the  excrements,  and  the 
ration  then  should  be  altered  until  normal  conditions  are 
reached.  Practical  experiments  appear  to  show  that  the  di- 
gestive capacity  of  cattle  is  about  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  dry  matter 
of  their  weight.  Upon  this  basis  one  can  approximate  the 
maximum  feeding  capacity  of  the  product  on  hand  for  a  given 
period. 

All  standard  rations  are  based  upon  the  supposition  that  the 
stable  is  kept  at  a  temperature  that  varies  from  12  to  20°  C. 
In  exceptional  cases,  during  winter  for  example,  the  tempera- 
ture is  very  much  below  this  standard;  under  which  circum- 
stances it  becomes  important  to  increase  the  percentage  of  heat- 
forming  elements,  and  in  such  cases  beets  may  render  good 
service.  The  caloric  is  thus  furnished  to  the  animal  and  he  is 
not  obliged  to  abnormally  exhaust  those  elements  for  heating 
the  body  which  should  be  otherwise  utilized.  The  carbohy- 
drates and  fatty  substances  are  particularly  desirable.  It  has 


VARIATION    IN    RATION.  59 

* 

been  recommended  that  the  carbohydrates  be  increased  TV  and 
protein  ^  for  every  5°  C.  fall  below  12°  C. 

The  composition  of  a  ration  should  vary  not  only  with  the  Variation  in 
animal  but  with  the  object  in  view.  If  it  is  simply  to  keep  the  stan(laro<s- 
animal  in  good  condition,  then  its  fodder  would  be  a  main- 
tenance ration.  In  case  of  cows  giving  milk  there  is  another 
element  that  must  be  considered  besides  that  of  furnishing  the 
body  with  its  requirements,  which  is  that  of  meeting  the  drain 
that  the  milk  production  requires.  While  animals  may  be 
made  to  feed  upon  stuffs  that  their  nature  did  not  origin- 
ally intend,  they  do  not  under  these  circumstances  retain  their 
original  constitution.  Animals,  for  example,  in  zoological 
gardens  are  kept  alive  on  foods  that  they  would  have  declined 
under  normal  conditions.  There  follows  a  great  change  in  their 
characteristics.  When  the  question  of  fattening  is  to  be  con- 
sidered, then  the  problem  is  to  force  the  consumption  of  rations, 
which  is  accomplished  by  furnishing  an  ample  amount  of  con- 
centrated stuffs,  and  these  may  consequently  be  considered  as 
additional  rations.  Just  as  man  eats  bread  to  represent  volume 
in  the  stomach,  which  is  one  of  the  essentials  of  perfect  diges- 
tion, live  stock  must  have  a  certain  amount  of  coarser  elements 
added,  the  volume  of  these  depending  upon  the  cases  under 
consideration.  The  coefficient  of  digestibility  depends  upon 
the  age  of  the  animal;  when  very  young  it  requires  considerable 
protein  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  the  nutritive  ratio  should  be 
as  near  as  possible  to  that  of  green  grass.  As  the  years  advance 
the  ratio  gets  smaller.  Calculations  of  this  kind  are  no  easy  . 
matter,  and  are  not  within  the  power  of  an  average  farmer;  but 
we  consider  -that  very  accurate  results  may  be  obtained  from 
certain  practical  rules. 

Rations  should  vary  in  their  composition.  Whatever  be  the  Variation  in  ra- 
advantage  claimed  for  cossettes,  beet  leaves  and  their  varied 
combinations,  it  is  never  desirable  to  keep  the  ration  of  the 
same  composition  for  too  long  at  a  time,  as  live  stock  in  general, 
like  men,  need  a  change  in  the  diet,  and  their  general  health  is 
improved  in  a  very  important  measure  by  these  changes.  The 
variation  should  not  consist  in  a  different  food  at  each  meal  of  the 
same  day.  Cows  or  live  stock  are  individuals  of  habit,  and  ex- 


60  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,   ETC. 

pect  their  ration  during  the  period  of  special  feeding  at  the  same 
hour  and  of  the  same  kind;  in  other  words,  the  first  meal 
should  not  necessarily  be  the  same  as  the  second,  but  on  each 
successive  day  let  it  be  identical  at  the  same  hour,  otherwise 
there  would  certainly  be  a  falling  off  in  the  expected  results. 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  change  the  ration  too  suddenly. 
Even  with  fodders  of  the  very  best  quality  there  is  a  falling  off 
in  the  flow  of  milk  after  a  change  is  made,  and  no  condition  is- 
more  important  for  an  abundant  supply  of  milk  than  the  uni- 
formity of  regime. 

A  precaution  too  frequently  overlooked  is  to  arrange  so  that 
the  summer  ration  shall  be  in  reserve  in  sufficient  amount  to 
meet  every  possible  emergency  caused  by  bad  weather,  etc., 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  winter  rations.  In  case  fermenta- 
tion occurs,  the  reserve  can  be  drawn  upon.  The  supply  of 
beets  and  beet  pulp  now  renders  excellent  service. 

Appetizing  ra-        The  success  of  cattle  feeding  frequently  depends  upon  the  art 
tions.  of  presenting  the  ration  in  the  most  appetizing  form  and  thereby 

realizing  an  abnormal  consumption;  and  as  for  milch  cows,  the 
more  appetizing  the  ration  is  the  better,  upon  general  principles, 
will  be  the  milk,  and  herein  may  be  found  the  exceptional  ad- 
vantages of  the  sugar  beet  and  its  residuum — it  is  always  eaten 
with  avidity.  A  custom  that  has  certainly  led  to  very  unsatis- 
factory results  is  to  simply  throw  the  various  compounds  of  a 
ration  into  the  manger  without  any  attempt  at  mixing;  this  is 
a  mistake,  and  never  leads  to  satisfactory  milk  production. 
Experience  appears  to  show  that  it  is  best  to  give  the  more 
palatable  ration  in  the  morning,  while  the  roughage  is  placed  at 
the  cow's  disposal  for  night-feeding. 

Distribution  of  The  number  of  meals  per  diem  and  of  what  they  should  con- 
rations.  s-gj.  varv  w^n  gg^h  kjnci  Of  animal  being  fattened.  Regularity 
in  feeding  is  the  basis  of  success.  Animals  that  are  worked 
must  necessarily  have  a  longer  interval  between  their  meals 
than  those  that  are  stall-fed.  Whatever  plan  is  adopted,  it 
must  be  adhered  to.  Cattle  become  restless  when  the  meal 
hour  approaches,  and  if  irregular  the  wear  and  tear  on  their 
constitution  does  away  with  all  beneficial  effects  that  would 
be  otherwise  obtained.  The  meals  should  not  all  be  of  the 


MONEY    MODES    OF    CALCULATION. 


61 


All  existing 
modes  of  es- 
timation of 
value  very 
empirical. 


same  kind;  they  should,  within  a  reasonable  extent,  differ  not 
only  as  regards  quantity  but  composition;  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  these  differences  must  be  very  slight,  as  they  would 
otherwise  be  followed  by  digestive  complications.  Hence  the 
importance  of  passing  very  gradually  from  stall-feeding  to  pas- 
turage. It  is  important  to  watch  the  supply  of  fodders  on 
hand,  and  when  one  is  low  and  a  change  must  be  made,  arrange 
to  effect  the  same  gradually,  at  least  8  to  10  days  being  necessary 
for  these  changes  of  diet. 

Commercial  Value  of  Fodders. 

The  Germans  employ  much  technical  detail  to  determine  the 
value  of  fodders,  which  in  reality  is  a  most  simple  question, 
and  is  governed  by  the  supply  and  demand.  The  price  of  a 
commodity  must  necessarily  vary  with  the  advantages  of  its 
production  in  the  center  where  it  is  sold.  The  writer  intended 
to  give  an  average  price  of  the  standard  fodders  for  the  United 
States,  but  was  obliged  to  abandon  the  project  owing  to  the 
great  difference  in  the  value  of  a  staple  such  as  hay;  it  may 
fluctuate  from  a  few  cents  per  ton  to  several  dollars  (15  to  20). 
The  German  method  consists  in  accepting  hay  as  a  standard 
and  to  allow  a  pro  rata  value  for  the  digestible  elements  of 
which  it  is  composed:  knowing  the  composition  of  any  fodder, 
its  crude  protein,  fat,  etc. ,  are  multiplied  by  the  standard  prices 
and  its  commercial  value  is  thus  obtained. 

One  need  only  make  a  calculation  of  this  kind  and  compare 
the  price  obtained  with  the  market  rates  to  realize  how  far  such 
theoretical  considerations  are  from  the  reality.  Another  point 
not  to  be  forgotten  is  that  whatever  be  the  fodder  used,  it  must 
necessarily  contain  several  elements  that  are  not  utilized  in  the 
manner  that  theory  supposes,  under  which  circumstances,  if  we 
place  a  money  value  upon  them,  we  shall  pay  for  an  ingredient 
that  is  wasted,  and  this  would  certainly  not  be  in  accordance 
with  the  true  principles  of  economy. 

Place  a  definite  price  per  pound  on  protein,  fat  and  carbo-   Money  modes 
hydrates,  the  data  being  based  upon  the  average  market  price,  of  calculation- 
which  is  about  as  follows:  Protein  1  to  2.5  cents,  and  carbo- 
hydrates from  0.5  to  1  cent  per  pound.     The  advantage  of  this 


62  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

data  is  that  it  is  supposed  to  enable  the  farmer  to  calculate  in 
advance  what  fodder  is  to  his  actual  advantage.  While  the 
market  prices  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  gluten  meal  may  differ 
only  by  one  dollar,  the  actual  feeding  value  may  vary  $10.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  the  nutritive  money  value  as  admitted 
in  the  United  States  is  veiy  different  from  that  adopted  by 
Ku'hn,  who  declares  that  if  the  carbohydrates  are  worth  one 
cent  per  pound,  the  digestible  fatty  substances  would  then  be 
worth  2.44  cents  and  the  protein  digestible  constituents,  6  cents. 
However,  even  the  caloric  basis  of  estimation  is  very  mis- 
leading, as  the  formation  of  flesh  and  fat,  the  flow  of  milk,  etc., 
depend  upon  other  physical  conditions  than  simple  generation 
of  heat.  It  becomes  evident  than  even  in  this  case,  it  is  im- 
possible to  obtain  results  that  are  more  than  approximative^ 
correct.  The  only  true  basis  that  might  be  suggested  is  the 
actual  analysis  of  each  fodder  used,  and  this  would  be  too  com- 
plicated to  have  any  practical  value.  A  fact  too  frequently 
forgotten  is  that  to  a  farmer  the  most  valuable  fodder  is  not  the 
greatest  milk  and  meat  producer,  but  the  one  that  can  accom- 
plish this  at  the  least  possible  cost. 

If  of  two  fodders,  one  yields  two  pounds  of  digestible  matter, 
and  the  other  only  one  pound,  then  the  one  fodder  is  twice  as 
valuable  as  the  other  for  nutrition,  irrespective  of  the  market 
price.  The  price  of  meat  is  not  so  variable  throughout  the  country 
as  the  price  of  seeds,  so  we  may  base  estimates  upon  it.  To  pro- 
duce this  pound  of  beef,  there  must  be  consumed  a  certain 
quantity  of  protein,  fatty  substances,  and  carbohydrates,  and  this 
consumption  must  necessarily  vary  with  each  animal.  If  we  could 
establish  an  average,  then  we  could  approximate  the  value  of 
each  of  the  elements  upon  which  this  meat  production  depends. 
Purchasing  feeds.  It  is  always  recommended  when  purchasing  feeds  to  obtain  a 
list  of  market  prices  and  determine  by  a  very  careful  calculation 
which  is  the  most  desirable  for  the  object  in  view.  Such  efforts 
may  mean  a  daity  saving  of  ten  or  twelve  cents  per  ration  per 
diem.  The  calculation  should  be  largely  based  upon  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  protein  may  be  obtained  under  the  most 
economical  conditions,  and  these  data  always  vary  not  only 
with  the  feed,  but  with  the  year. 


COST    OF    RATIONS.  63 

It  is  important  that  the  farmer  should  know  when  purchasing 
feeding  stuff  just  what  its  source  and  its  nature  are.  Consider- 
able fraud  frequently  exists  in  this  respect,  and  various  wastes 
are  introduced  upon  the  market  that  have  only  a  secondary 
nutritive  value. 

The  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  proposes  the 
following  rules: 

1.  A  ration  to  contain  30  to  45  per  cent,  protein  and  50  to  60 
per  cent,   carbohydrates:    Cotton  seed  meal,  linseed  meal  and 
gluten  meal. 

2.  A  ration  to  contain  20  to  30  per  cent,  protein  and  66  to 
70  per  cent,  carbohydrates:  Gluten  feeds,  dried  brewers'  grain, 
malt  sprouts,  buckwheat,  middlings,  etc. 

3.  A  ration  to  contain  14  to  20  per  cent,  protein  and  70  to  75 
per  cent,  carbohydrates:  Middlings,  from  wheat  and  rye. 

4.  A  ration  to  contain  8  to  14  per  cent,  protein  and  75  to  85 
per  cent,  carbohydrates:  Cereals,  grains,  hominy,  etc. 

The  cost  of  the  ration  should  be  as  low  as  possible,  so  that  Cost  of  rations, 
the  results  obtained  will  be  .at  least  equal  to  cost  of  fodders. 
Just  within  what  limits  the  farmer  can  profitably  grow  his  own 
fodders  is  a  question  we  cannot  here  discuss.  All  things  being 
equal  one  fact  is  certain,  he  saves  the  cost  of  transportation. 
Oil  meal  for  example  can  be  more  profitably  utilized  for  milk 
production  near  large  cities  than  it  could  be  for  cattle  fattening 
on  distant  farms.  Oats  are  more  suitable  for  feeding  working 
animals  than  they  would  be  for  stall-fed  cattle.  Consequently 
one  must  take  into  consideration  the  value  of  the  product  used. 
If  the  farmer  has  not  on  hand  any  so-called  concentrated 
fodder,  it  becomes  of  the  first  importance  that  he  purchase  what 
is  needed  from  outside.  Fodders  must  be  considered  collect- 
ively and  not  separately. 


PART  SECOND. 


Feeding  Beets  to  Cattle. 

Preliminary  IT  frequently  happens  that  the  beet  crop  is  very  large,  due  to 
remarks,  careful  cultivation,  or  to  neglect.  In  the  latter  case  the  roots 
are  big,  and  cannot  be  advantageously  used  at  the  factory.  If 
these  are  left  on  the  hands  of  the  farmer — as  is  frequently  the 
case — he  becomes  discouraged,  and  hesitates  to  renew  his  efforts 
at  sugar-beet  cultivation.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  can  find  a 
profitable  use  for  his  roots  as  feed,  he  will  consider  beets  from 
an  entirely  different  standpoint.  On  several  farms  to  which  the 
writer's  attention  has  been  called,  beets  have  been  fed  to  cattle, 
and  the  fact  has  now  become  a  source  of  trouble  to  the  manu- 
facturer. 

In  these  cases,  the  farmers  argue  that  they  can  make  more 
money  by  feeding  direct  than  by  selling  roots  to  the  factory, 
with  the  idea  of  subsequently  utilizing  the  refuse  pulp  (?). 

Many  farmers  throughout  the  country  are  willing  to  contract 
to  grow  small  areas  of  beets  and  to  subsequently  use  the  roots 
for  cattle-feeding;  the  results  have  been  most  satisfactory  to  all 
interested.  Capitalists  can  form  some  idea  of  what  the  chances 
are  for  a  satisfactory  crop  of  beets  in  any  given  vicinity,  and  the 
farmer,  in  the  meantime,  is  gaining  experience  with  this  special 
crop  at  no  money  loss  to  himself.  The  advantages  that  have 
followed  the  introduction  of  a  succulent  ration  with  corn  have 
long  since  been  recognized  everywhere  in  Continental  Europe. 

In  an  emergency,  beets  may  be  used  for  feeding  cattle,  but 
it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  more  money  is  to  be  made  from 
milk  and  flesh  by  feeding  roots  direct  than  is  possible  by  use  of 
the  product  after  sugar  has  been  extracted.  It  is  also  a  mistake 
to  imagine  that  large  beets*  give  the  best  results;  it  is  unneces- 

*The  total  dry  matter  contained  in  roots  diminishes  with  their  size.  Sugar 
beets  are  very  poor  in  nitrogen,  but  their  percentage  of  dry  matter  is  com- 

(64) 


STEAMING   OR   COOKIXG.  65 

sary  to  enter  into  a  dollar-and-cent  argument  which  would  be 
beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  writing. 

What  nature  does  in  the  field,  science  must  accomplish  in  the  Preparation  of 
stable,  which  is  to  furnish  to  the  animal  being  fed  a  ration  that    '>ee*s 
is  not  only  suited  to  the  daily  requirement,  but  that  will  be 
eaten  with  relish. 

Many  farmers  make  the  mistake  of  attempting  to  feed  whole 
beets  to  cattle.  Under  such  circumstances  the  results  obtained 
are  not  what  they  should  be.  Beets  should  be  properly  sliced 
and  combined  with  other  fodders.  The  size  of  the  slice  has  an 
important  influence;  if  too  large,  there  is  danger  to  the  animals 
from  choking,  and  several  instances  of  this  are  on  record. 
This  difficulty  is  never  to  be  feared  when  using  residuary- 
diffusion  cossettes  from  factory.  The  importance  of  a  thorough 
crushing,  grinding,  or  slicing,  as  the  case  may  be,  is  made  evi- 
dent when  we  consider  that  the  digestibility  of  fodder  depends 
upon  its  combination  with  the  gastric  juice  of  the  stomach;  and 
when  the  assimilation  is  not  what  was  expected,  it  may  be 
largely  due  to  the  improperly-prepared  food  that  was  used. 

In  certain  cases  there  are  important  advantages  to  be  derived    Steaming  or 
from  warming  or  cooking  fodders;  the  practice,  however,  as  to     C0ol(in9-t 
beets  is  by  no  means  general.     Cows  are  willing  to  eat  more 
warm  food  than  cold,  which  fact  realizes  the  desired  end,  that 
of  increasing   their  weight.      Furthermore,  steaming  10  to  15 
minutes,  at  a  pressure  of  three  atmospheres,  has  the  effect  of 
reducing  to  a  homogeneous  mass  the  straw  and  general  waste 

paratively  high.  In  very  large  beets  grown  upon  highly  manured  soils,  not 
more  than  £  of  their  percentage  of  albuminoids  is  nitrogen.  This  fact  fre- 
quently leads  to  error,  as  the  ultimate  results  obtained  are  not  compatible 
with  the  theoretical  feeding  value  of  the  roots  used.  Sheep  fed  upon  beet 
roots  digested  98  per  cent,  of  the  carbohydrates  contained  in  the  ration. 

t  This  cooking  is  an  additional  expense:  calculations  as  regards  cost  would 
have  but  little  value,  for  this  would  vary  for  each  case  considered.  It  is  for 
each  farmer  to  determine  whether  the  operation  is  profitable  or  not.  The 
early  theories  respecting  steam  driving  out  alcohol,  and  other  volatile  sub- 
stances that  would  be  irritants,  are  most  amusing.  Certain  farmers  went  so 
far  as  to  assert  that  during  certain  epidemics  of  pneumonia,  cattle  fed  upon 
fermented  beets  not  steamed,  died,  whilst  others  receiving  regular  rations  of 
sliced  and  cooked  beets  lived  through  the  plague. 

5 


66 


FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


around  the  barn,  that  are  combined  with  beets  in  proportions 
depending  upon  scarcity  of  standard  fodders;  75  Ibs.  steamed 
beets  per  diem  is  a  good  average.  Under  all  circumstances, 
straws  used  should  be  properly  chopped.  In  some  cases  the 


FIG.  1. 


ilillli          ill!' 


Vertical  and  Hovizontal  Section  of  Leduc's  Bett- Steaming  Pits. 

importance  of  cooking  is  very  evident.     With  hogs,  the  increase 
of  weight  after  cooking  of  the  food  is  very  striking. 

A  description  of  a  steaming  process,  combined  with  fermen- 
tation, is  of  interest.     The  mode  given  herewith  is  the  one  used 


STEAMING    OR    COOKING. 


G7 


on  Mr.  Leduc's  farm  at  Beaurevoir,  France.  About  125  acres 
were  cultivated  in  beets,  and  the  crop  obtained  was  fed  to  cattle. 
It  is  argued  that  the  money  profits  are  three  times  greater  than 
from  land  devoted  to  the  customary  pasturage.  Mr.  Leduc 
prepared  the  beets  in  two  ways,  the  method  adopted  depending 
upon  the  season.  In  winter  the  roots  were  steamed,  and  in 
summer  fermented  by  the  natural  heat.  The  steaming  wras 
effected  in  six  pits,  arranged  in  two  rows  of  three  each  as  shown 
in  Fig.  1. 

These  rows  were  separated  by  walls,  between  which  were 
located  the  pipes  requisite  for  steaming;  boards  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  walls  permitted  the  workmen  to  fill  or  empty  the  pits 
as  occasion  might  demand.  At  no  great  distance  from  these 
pits  were  located  the  beet  washer  and  slicer,  and  these  were 
connected  with  a  stationary  steam-engine,  which  also  worked 
the  water-pump.  The  necessary  steam  was  furnished  by  a  six- 
horse-power  boiler.  The  beets  were  thrown  into  the  washer  by 
hand;  after  leaving  it,  they  glided  into  the  slicer,  which  may  be 
of  but  cheap  construction.  The  cossettes  thus 
obtained  were  shoveled  into  the  pits  before 
mentioned  oncl  combined  with  about  one-ninth 
of  their  weight  of  chopped  strawr  of  various 
kinds  (colza,  wheat,  etc.).  As  to  the  mixing 
in  the  pits,  especial  care  should  be  given  to 
prevent  this  sliced  mass  remaining  in  heaps, 
since  the  steam  would  then  not  have  a  free 
circulation  through  it. 

The  bottom  of  each  pit  is  properly  cemented 
or  paved  and  an  opening  is  left  for  a  pipe  with 
six  arms  to  supply  the  steam.  Over  each  end 
of  these  arms  may  be  found  a  sort  of  chimney, 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  These  are  closed  at  the  top 
and  perforated  on  the  sides  with  down-slanting 
orifices,  which  effectually  throw  the  steam  in 
all  directions.  These  chimneys  are  placed  in 
position  only  when  the  pits  are  being  filled 
with  sliced  beets  and  straw,  and  are  withdrawn  after  the  steam- 
ing is  finished.  The  steamed  mass  is  then  taken  from  the  pits 


FIG.  2. 


Detail 
of  Chimney. 


68  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

and  placed  in  cemented  tanks,  of  a  capacity  each  of  about 
20  cubic  meters  (26  cubic  yards).  The  pit  emptied  one 
day  is  filled  the  next  with  about  10,000  kilograms  (22,000 
pounds),  composed,  as  before  stated,  of  9,000  kilograms  of 
chopped  beets  and  1,000  kilograms  of  chopped  straw.  In  about 
twelve  hours  the  mass  begins  to  ferment,  throwing  off  vapors 
charged  with  perceptible  quantities  of  alcohol;  immediately 
thereafter  it  is  fed  to  the  live  stock  which  eat  it  with  avidity. 
At  Mr.  Leduc's  farm  each  calf  is  fed  twice  a  day  with  5 
kilograms  (11  pounds)  of  this  fermented  fodder,  adding  250 
grams  of  oil-cake.  The  fattening  is  effected  in  variable  periods, 
depending  upon  many  conditions;  ninety  days,  however,  is 
considered  to  be  a  fair  average.  From  this  we  may  con- 
clude that  the  total  consumption  was  450  kilograms  of  fer- 
mented mass  with  a  gain  of  about  50  to  55  pounds.  This 
fermented  mass  may  be  kept  in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation 
for  an  entire  year.  Roots,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be  preserved 
in  silos  for  several  of  the  winter  months  without  any  appreciable 
change  in  their  nourishing  qualities;  their  perfect  preservation, 
however,  during  the  summer  is  practically  impossible. 

Especial  care  is  taken  to  compress  the  sliced  beets  so  that  the 
fermentation  may  be  effected  evenly  throughout  the  mass. 
When  the  silos  are  filled,  the  upper  surface  is  covered  with  from 
six  to  eight  inches  of  earth.  After  a  short  time  fermentation 
ceases  and  the  mass  is  in  a  condition  to  be  kept  for  a  consider- 
able length  of  time,  as  the  carbonic  acid  evolved  will  prevent 
any  putrid  fermentation.  Mr.  Leduc's  experiments  have  shown 
that  this  food  is  sufficiently  delicate  to  be  eaten  with  advantage 
by  young  lambs,  as  they  all  remained  in  a  perfectly  healthy  con- 
dition. These  experiments  were  limited  to  some  4,000  sheep. 
It  is  also  asserted  that  two  cows  may  be  well  kept  for  an  entire 
year  on  12  tons  of  beets,  the  result  of  one  acre  of  land,  while, 
under  the  ordinary  French  system  of  pasturing,  at  least  three 
acres  would  be  needed  to  obtain  an  equal  result. 
Fermentation.*  A  reasonable  fermentation  is  without  doubt  an  advantage  in 

*The  experiments  of  Hellriegel  and  Lucanus  appear  to  show,  that  a  prelim- 
inary fermentation  of  rye  straw  in  no  way  increased  its  digestibility.  Experi- 
ments of  Hornberger  show  that  steaming  of  certain  fodders,  such  as  meadow 
hay,  diminished  very  considerably  the  digestibility  of  its  protein. 


BEETS  AND  PULP  COMPARED.  69 

the  preparation  of  rations  in  which  beets  are  the  basis.  The 
operation  requires  considerable  care,  because  if  the  proper  heat- 
ing limit  is  passed,  the  fodder  becomes  unfit  food  for  cattle. 
The  manner  of  conducting  the  fermentation  process  should  de- 
pend upon  the  ambient  temperature.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  a  series  of  boxes  be  placed  near  the  animals  being  fed, 
wherein  the  mixture  of  sliced  beets,  chopped  straw,  (9  Ibs. 
beets  for  1  Ib.  straw),  etc.,  is  placed;  each  box  to  contain  a 
quantity  corresponding  to  the  ration  of  the  particular  animal 
(sheep  11  Ib.  mixture  plus  J  Ib.  oil  cake)  being  fattened. 
When  feeding-time  arrives  the  mass  should  have  undergone  a 
fermentation  that  gives  the  best  results,  as  determined  by  ex- 
perience. 

The  main  object  of  this  process  is  to  soften  those  portions  of  Maceration, 
a  fodder  that  would  not  be  readily  acted  upon  by  gastric  juice. 
When  in  contact  with  water  these  particles  swell  and  break 
open,  greatly  increasing  their  digestibility.  The  influence  of 
water  upon  a  mixture  of  sliced  beets  and  straw  is  made  evident 
by  the  fact,  that  when  the  operation  is  thoroughly  performed, 
the  digestibility  is  increased  nearly  50  per  cent.  Maceration 
may  render  excellent  service  in  case  of  feeding  mother  beets  to 
cattle;  these,  after  the  seed  stalk  has  been  cut  off,  are  more 
fibrous  in  their  composition  than  normal  beets.  Roots  of  this 
kind  contain  very  little  sugar,  considerable  ash,  and  are  very 
watery. 

Comparative  Experiments. 

A  series  of  experiments  were  made  in  France  some  years  since  Beets  and  pulp 
to  determine  practically  whether  sugar  beets  direct  from  the 
field  had  any  advantage  over  pulp  obtained  from  factory.  In 
these  practical  trials  ten  cows  of  about  the  same  weight  were  used; 
the  five  fed  with  beets  weighed  5,100  Ibs.,  the  five  fed  with  pulp 
weighed  about  the  same.  During  the  experiment  one  half 
received  172^-  tons  of  beets  and  the  other  189 \  tons  of  pulp. 
The  five  cows  fed  with  beets  gave  1,136  quarts  milk  that  con- 
tained an  average  of  39.9  per  cent,  fatty  substance;  the  five  fed 
with  pulp  yielded  1,104  quarts  milk  testing  33.9  per  cent,  fatty 
substance. 


70  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

No  special  difference  could  be  noticed  in  the  taste  of  the  milk 
in  either  case.  The  butter  from  the  pulp-fed  cows  was  of  a  fine 
yellow  color.  Numerous  other  examples  could  be  given,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  extended  experiments  in  feeding 
1,660  sheep  for  120  days  with  beets.  The  ration  consisted  of 
11  Ibs.  beets  to  1  Ib.  hay,  1.1  Ib.  oil  cake  and  1.1  Ib.  straw. 
The  increased  value  of  the  sheep  was  two  dollars  per  head. 
The  same  experiments  were  repeated  with  diffusion  beet-pulp, 
and  the  conclusions  were,  that  this  residuum  was  much  more 
profitable  than  beets  direct  from  the  field. 

Other  experiments  upon  sheep  were  made  to  determine  just 
what  the  relations  were  between  the  feeding  value  of  distillery 
pulp  and  sugar  beets.  The  daily  rations  during  these  experi- 
ments were,  for  the  first  week,  6.6  Ibs.  fermented  beet  slices, 
2.2  Ibs.  hay,  0.7  Ib.  straw  and  0.4  Ib.  chopped  straw.  During 
the  second  week  the  amount  of  beets  and  pulp  fed  per  diem  was 
increased  to  13  Ibs. 

After  84  days  the  total  increased  weight  of  the  sheep  fattened 
with  beets  was  19,250  Ibs.,  while  with  pulp  it  was  16,000  Ibs. 
The  average  weight  of  manure  obtained  with  beets  was  8.4  Ibs., 
with  pulp  11  Ibs.;  the  quality  for  fertilizing  purposes  of  the 
pulp  manure  was  inferior  to  the  beet  manure.  The  conclusions 
were  that  100  Ibs.  beets  have  the  same  value  for  feeding  pur- 
poses as  180  Ibs.  pulp.  If  beets  sell  at  the  factory  at  $4.00  per 
ton,  the  cost  of  the  total  ration  would  be  18  cents;  if  pulp  can 
be  purchased  at  $1.50  per  ton  at  the  factory,  the  total  ration 
will  cost  12  cents,  which  shows  that  pulp  is  decidedly  more 
profitable  for  farmers'  purposes  than  beets. 

Sugar  beets  and  Experiments  were  made  to  determine  whether  there  was 
mangels  com-  anv  advantage  in  feeding  a  beet  of  the  mangel  order  over  the. 
use  of  sugar  beets  of  a  satisfactory  quality,  cultivated  according 
to  the  now  accepted  rules  of  close  planting.  Evidently  it  costs 
more  per  ton  to  cultivate  a  good  beet  than  a  root  belonging  to 
the  same  family,  but  receiving  comparatively  little  attention. 
The  experiments  we  have  under  consideration  were  made  in 
1898-99,  and  were  conducted  in  three  series;  in  each  lot  of 
sheep  fed  there  was  the  same  number  of  animals,  and  they  were 
furnished  with  a  weight  of  roots  obtained  from  a  given  area 


SUGAR    BEETS    AND    MANGELS    COMPARED.  71 

regardless  of  their  feeding  qualities;  under  these  circumstances 
the  results  obtained  were  comparable.  The  roots  of  the  mangel 
type  were  known  as  the  Tankard,  and  two  varieties  of  sugar 
beets  were  used,  one  from  mother  beets  testing  10  per  cent,  sugar 
and  the  other  a  rich  rose-neck  beet,  the  seed  having  been  ob- 
tained from  a  mother  beet  testing  15  per  cent,  sugar.  The  Tank- 
ards were  cultivated  in  rows  20^  inches  apart,  the  spacing  in  the 
rows  being  23 J  inches;  the  average  beet  was  planted  in  rows 
11.7  inches  apart  and  spaced  at  17^  inches,  while  for  the  supe- 
rior beet  the  rows  were  11.7  inches  and  spacing  15^  inches. 
When  the  beets  were  harvested  their  analysis  and  weighing 
showed  the  following  results: 

COMPARISON  OF  TANKARD  AND  SUGAR  BEETS. 


DRY  SUBSTANCES, 
Per  acre. 

YIELD, 
Per  acre. 

Tankard  

6  339  Ibs 

18     tons 

7  779   k" 

17  6     " 

7  260   u 

14  8     " 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  dry  matter  per  acre  is  in  favor  of 
the  beets. 

The  ration  of  Tankard  beets  was  6.6  Ibs  per  diem,  while  of 
the  average  beet  the  allowance  was  6.4  Ibs.,  and  of  the  superior 
beet  the  weight  fed  was  5.3  Ibs.,  these  being  all  obtained  from 
an  equal  superficial  area. 

The  beets  were  sliced  into  cossettes  and  combined  with  0.4 
Ibs.  of  wheat  balls  per  animal.  The  mixture  was  made  24 
hours  in  advance,  so  as  to  allow  for  a  certain  fermentation. 
An  allowance  of  2.2  Ibs.  of  hay  was  also  fed  to  each  sheep. 
The  ration  was  divided  into  two  parts,  which  were  fed  at  sepa- 
rate times,  and  the  sheep  had  placed  at  their  disposal  salt  and 
water  according  to  their  special  individual  requirements.  The 
experiments  on  each  lot  of  sheep  lasted  for  twenty  days  with 
each  variety  of  beet  being  tested. 

The  increase  in  weight  of  the  sheep  considered  in  lots  was  as 
follows: 


72 


FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


COMPARATIVE  INCREASE  IN  WEIGHT  OF  SHEEP  FED  WITH  TANKARD  AND 
WITH  SUGAR  BEETS. 


TANKARD. 

AVERAGE 
BEET. 

SUPERIOR 
BEET. 

7  0  Ibs 

15  2  Ibs 

9  7  Ibs 

fi  4   " 

1Q  0     " 

10  3   k< 

Third    lot  of  shppn 

3  9   '< 

99" 

8  3  a 

17  3  Ibs 

38  1  Ibs 

28  3  Ibs 

The  argument  that  necessarily  follows  upon  the  examination 
of  these  figures  is  that  the  average  beet  is  very  superior  to  the 
other  two,  but  even  the  superior  beet  gives  more  profitable 
results  from  a  fattening  standpoint  than  does  the  mangel.  If 
we  consider  the  cost  of  cultivation  of  the  several  varieties  of 
beets  tested,  it  stands  to  reason  that  more  seed  is  needed  for 
rows  11.7  inches  apart  than  for  rows  separated  by  20|-  inches; 
the  weeding  is  also  more  difficult  and  expensive  in  the  latter 
than  in  the  former  case,  this  being  also  true  for  the  harvesting 
for  the  reason  that  there  are  more  beets  to  collect  from  the  field. 
All  facts  considered,  it  was  found  that  the  surplus  cost  in  this 
case  was  $2.40  per  acre  over  and  above  that  existing  for  roots 
cultivated  at  greater  distances  between  the  rows.  The  value 
upon  the  market  of  the  increased  weights  in  question  was  $1.26, 
$2.80  and  $2.26  respectively.  If  we  bring  into  our  calculation 
the  cost  of  production,  we  find  that  the  profit  from  the  average 
beet  was  $46  per  acre  and  from  the  rich  beet  only  $31,  while  for 
the  Tankard  it  was  very  much  less.  These  results  show  beyond 
cavil  the  importance  of  growing  beets,  even  of  an  average 
quality,  according  to  accepted  rules  of  close  planting  when 
intended  for  feeding  purposes,  rather  than  to  attempt  cultivat- 
ing roots  of  low  grades  and  by  methods  already  too  long  con- 
tinued. The  increased  profits  more  than  compensate  for  the 
extra  cost  and  trouble. 

When  growing  roots  for  cattle-feed,  remember  that  a  root  of  a 
moderate  size  is  wanted,  not  over  3  pounds  being  a  moderate 
yield,  as  the  larger  the  individual  root  the  lower  will  be  its 


SUGAR    BEETS    AND    MANGELS    COMPARED. 


73 


nutritive  equivalent.  If  we  determine  the  pounds  of  plant 
food  taken  up  per  ton  of  mangels  and  beets,  with  their  leaves, 
we  would  have  the  following  average  analysis: 

FOOD  TAKEN  UP  BY  MANGELS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS. 


1 

.     1  ,    . 

iq.'g 

1    ft 

2 

W 

^  O  i"o      I  *•  S 

O 

*3 

. 

Crop  Grown. 

0 

^| 

s  rs  . 

1 

O 

a 

. 

•X3   £   "3        '••  .         "—  i    C 

g 

o 

One  ton  each. 

8 

*P  —  I'M 

O     •  ;'3   3 

{2 

c 

a 

s 

| 

°    00 

II  13.  11 

it- 

jl£ 

1 

O     i 

gg 

"Q 

s 

E 

S 

O 

E 

PH 

OQ 

o 

SQQ 

H 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

ll)S. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

4.3 

8.7 

3.4 

1.1 

0.9 

1.5 

0.6 

1.8 

0.71 

2  3 

3  2 

3  I 

1  3 

1  2 

0  6 

0  8 

2  2 

0  5  j- 

38  2 

6.6 

11.9 

6.5 

2.4 

2.1 

2.1 

1.4 

4.0 

1.2] 

Sugar-beets,  root  with  \ 

5.3 

7.7 

1.6 

1.0 

1.5 

2.3 

0.7 

0.3 

0.61 

2.1 

2.6 

1.9 

2.2 

2.1 

0.8 

0.9 

0.6 

0.3}- 

34.5 

7.4 

10.3 

3.5 

3.2 

3.6  j  3.1 

1.6 

0.9 

0.9  J 

This  shows  the  ash  absorbed  by  growing  one  ton  of  mangels  to 
be  38.2  pounds,  while  with  beets  it  is  34.5  pounds,  thus  proving 
mangels  more  exhausting  to  the  soil  than  sugar-beets.  If  we 
admit  that  20  tons  of  mangels  may  be  grown  to  the  acre,  a  total 
of  764  pounds  of  plant  food  will  be  absorbed.  If  10  tons  are 
an  average  yield  to  the  acre  for  sugar-beets,  the  ash  taken  up 
by  that  crop  will  be  345  pounds.  Consequently  we  are  not  far 
from  correct  in  asserting  that  by  neglectful  cultivation  it  will 
take  one-half  the  time  to  ruin  the  soil  in  growing  mangels  that 
it  does  with  beets.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  scientific  rules  of 
cultivation  are  practiced  when  growing  beets,  the  diminution  of 
the  fertility  of  the  land  need  not  be  dreaded.  Beets  raised  for 
a  sugar  factory  should,  on  general  principles,  have  their  necks 
and  leaves  sliced  off  before  they  are  hauled  from  the  field  where 
they  were  grown,  then  the  greater  portion  of  the  salts,  etc., 
taken  up  is  returned.  Those  varieties  of  mangels  raised  for 
stock  feed  grow  nearly  as  much  above  as  beneath  ground, 


74 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


rutabagas. 


especially  when  manured  by  the  leaf-stripping.  Neck  slicing 
is  not  effected,  for  the  reason  that  it  would  diminish  by  nearly 
one-half  the  yield  of  the  crop,  under  which  circumstances  it 
would  not  be  profitable.  The  conclusion  is,  that  those  farmers 
who  grow  mangels  for  other  purposes  than  their  own  stock  use, 
are  practicing  a  system  of  husbandry  not  to  be  encouraged. 
Sugar-beets  From  time  to  time  it  is  urged  that  rutabagas  be  more  exten- 
compared  with  gjve}y  cultivated,  it  being  argued  that  the  farmer  in  the  long 
run  would  derive  more  actual  advantage  from  such  a  crop  than 
is  possible  from  sugar  beets  when  the  object  in  view  is  cattle- 
feeding.  We  are  willing  to  admit  that  the  yield  per  acre  is 
greater  with  rutabagas  than  with  sugar  beets,  but  there  are  other 
issues  to  be  considered  besides  the  yield.  Upon  general  prin- 
ciples the  main  effort  in  sugar-beet  cultivation  has  always  been 
to  increase  the  sugar  percentage  and  dry  substances  contained 
in  the  beet,  rather  than  to  obtain  as  far  as  possible  heavy  yields. 
With  rutabagas  on  the  other  hand  the  aim  has  always  been  to 
get  heavy  yields  regardless  of  every  other  condition,  and  as  a 
result  36  tons  have  been  obtained  to  the  acre.  Sugar-beets  may 
be  said  to  contain  from  75  to  90  per  cent,  water;  in  the  case  of 
rutabagas  with  heavy  yields  the  root  is  very  watery  and  contains 
only  about  10  per  cent,  dry  substances.  The  table  herewith 
shows  the  analysis  of  a  rutabaga  of  a  heavy  yield  variety  and  of 
a  superior  type  of  sugar-beet: 

COMPARATIVE  ANALYSES  OF  A  RUTABAGA  AND  A  SUGAR-BEET. 


3    V 

a 

£ 

VARIETY. 

. 

_Q    ^ 

*~*    G 

II 

y 

42 

il 

1 

S 

>»* 

£•£ 

^^ 

ll 

3 

^ 

P 

£ 

OJ     * 

6 

a 

a 

Superior  sugar-beet    

81.0 

19.0 

2.3 

0.2 

14.6 

0.7 

1.0 

01    1 

8  9 

1  3 

0  1 

6  3 

1  i 

0  3 

The  actual  nutrients  are  in  far  greater  proportion  in  the 
sugar-beet  than  in  the  forage  variety.  Consequently  when  feed- 
ing, weight  for  weight,  the  two  kinds  of  beets,  the  benefits  that 


COMPARED  WITH  RUTABAGAS. 


75 


will  accrue  will  be  much  greater  in  one  case  than  in  the  other. 
It  must  he  thoroughly  understood  that  we  do  not  recommend 
high  testing  beets  for  cattle-feeding,  but  on  the  contrary,  a 
variety  containing  10  per  cent,  sugar  rather  than  the  forage 
types,  averaging  about  5  per  cent.  The  difference  in  the  total  dry 
substance  in  the  two  cases  would  not  be  much  less  than  1,000 
Ibs.  per  acre,  an  amount  which  means  considerable  additional 
money  returns.  The  cost  of  cultivation  for  the  heavy  yield 
varieties  is  less  than  when  cultivating  in  rows  nearer  together; 
but  this  difference  is  very  slight  in  comparison  with  the  actual 
advantage  gained.  At  the  present  time  many  of  the  European 
seed-growing  specialists  are  concentrating  their  efforts  to  create 
what  is  known  as  a  semi-sugar-beet,  possessing  certain  char- 
acteristic qualities  of  a  superior  and  inferior  beet.  If  this 
problem  can  be  solved  the  farmer  would  then  have  a  crop  at  his 
disposal  which  he  could  for  a  term  of  years  cultivate  and  be- 
come accustomed  to,  without  losing  money  in  awaiting  the 
building  of  a  beet-sugar  factory  in  his  vicinity.  A  well-known 
agronomist  has  made  some  experiments  with  the  new  variety 
in  question,  the  results  being  as  follows: 

COMPARATIVE  YIELDS  OF  FORAGE  AND  SEMI-SUGAR  BEETS. 

YIELD  to  THE  ACRE. 


Forage  beet. 

Semi-sugar  beet. 

Yield   . 

14  tons 

16  tons 

4  000  Ibs 

7  000  Ibs 

2  300   u 

4,400   " 

202 

350 

This  means  an  excess  of  3,000  Ibs.  in  favor  of  the  new  variety 
for  dry  substance  alone.  In  these  special  experiments  the  ex- 
cessive drought  had  an  important  influence  on  the  yield  of  the 
forage  variety.  We  consider  these  facts  are  of  sufficient 
moment  for  our  leading  agricultural  stations  to  give  the  subject 


76  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

their   special    attention.       They   would   thus   do   considerable 
towards  advancing  the  prosperity  of  the  tiller  in  their  respective 
sections. 
Green  corn         The  question  of  ensilage  has  for  many  years  attracted  much 

fodder  vs.  sugar  attention  throughout  the  country,  and  the  subject  is  interesting 
beets  for  cattle        ,  f* 

fee(j         and  worthy  of  every  agriculturalist  s  consideration. 

By  supplying  an  economical  green  fodder  to  live  stock 
during  the  winter  months  milch  cows  may  be  kept  in  an 
excellent  condition.  For  many  years  past,  farmers  of  the 
southern  parts  of  France  have  successfully  adopted  a  system  of 
green  corn  ensilage,  \vhich,  in  the  generality  of  cases,  has  given 
excellent  results.  As  to  its  profitable  application  in  the  United 
States,  experiments  have  led  to  very  contradictory  results,  and 
in  consequence  we  are  not  prepared  either  to  recommend  or 
condemn  the  practice  from  a  financial  point  of  view.  The  silos 
generally  used  are  built  of  masonry  and  internally  cemented, 
their  cost  depending  upon  their  capacity.  If  but  few  cows  are 
to  be  fed,  the  siloing  of  their  food  would  not  be  judicious,  as 
the  cost  of  the  fodder  per  pound  would  then  be  considerably 
increased.  Before  the  green  corn-stalks  are  placed  in  the  silos 
they  are  sliced  and  mixed  with  chopped  straw.  The  hauling 
of  the  stalks  to  the  site  of  ensilage,  their  preparation,  etc.,  are 
all  operations  the  cost  of  which  depends  upon  the  facilities 
offered.  When  in  large  quantities  the  bulk  would  evidently 
considerably  diminish  its  cost  of  transportation  per  ton.  As 
regards  this  many  enthusiasts  contend  that,  under  favorable 
circumstances,  it  may  be  accomplished  at  forty  cents  a  ton. 

While  excellent  results  may  be  obtained  by  feeding  ensilaged 
green  corn  to  cattle,  the  exhausting  effect  this  practice  has  upon 
the  soil  should  not  be  overlooked.  Many  farmers  are  well 
aware  of  the  importance  of  "plowing  under"  corn  stalks  after 
the  corn  harvest  is  over,  in  which  case  the  soil  gets  back  a 
large  percentage  of  the  elements  absorbed  by  the  plant  in  grow- 
ing. On  the  other  hand,  if  green  corn  is  fed  to  cattle,  and  if 
the  resulting  manure  is  spread  on  the  soil,  a  portion  of  the 
plant-food  will  be  lost — this  fact  applies  to  fodders  in  general. 
If  a  comparison  be  made  between  the  exhausting  effect  from 
growing  one  acre  of  green  corn,  and  the  same  area  planted  with 


GREEN    CORN    FODDER. 


77 


sugar  beets,  it  will  be  found  tbat  the  latter  crop,  although  not 
as  nourishing  as  the  former,  is  by  far  the  more  beneficial  to  the 
soil,  and  not  nearly  as  exhausting.  In  comparing  mangels  with 
sugar  beets,  we  have  previously  called  attention  to  the  percent- 
age of  plant-food  taken  up  by  one  ton  of  beets  and  mangels. 
In  the  same  manner  we  may  compare  the  most  important  of 
these  elements  absorbed  by  one  ton  of  green  fodder  with  those 
of  one  ton  of  beets. 


PLANT  FOODS  ABSORBED  BY  ONE  TON  OF  SUGAR-BEETS  AND  GREEN  CORN. 


Potassa. 

Soda. 

Mag- 
nesia. 

Lime. 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

7  7 

1  6 

1  5 

1  0 

2  3 

5  3 

4  3 

0  5 

1  4 

1  6 

1  3 

3  2 

These  figures  prove  that,  ton  to  ton,  sugar  beets  are  more  ex- 
hausting than  green  corn;  but  if  we  admit  that  the  yield  of 
green  com  is  twice  that  of  sugar  beets,  we  would  obtain  the  fol- 
lowing figures: 

PLANT  FOODS  ABSORBED  TO  THE  ACRE  BY  TEN  TONS  OF  BEETS  AND 
TWENTY  TONS  OF  GREEN  CORN. 


Potassa. 

Soda. 

Mag- 
nesia. 

Lime. 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

86 
77  Ibs. 
9 

10 
16  Ibs. 
—6 

28 
15  Ibs. 
13 

32 
10  Ibs. 
22 

26 
23  Ibs. 
3 

64 
53  Ibs. 
11 

In  other  words,  green  corn  takes  up  per  acre  6  Ibs.  less  soda,  13 
Ibs.  more  magnesia,  22  Ibs.  more  lime,  3  Ibs.  more  phosphoric 
acid,  and  11  Ibs.  more  nitrogen. 

These   figures   are   apparently   insignificant,    but   when   the 
deficiency  in  the  soil  is  to  be  made  up,  the  dollar  cost  of  the 


78  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

fertilizers  over  and  above  that  required  after  a  beet-crop,  is 
worthy  of  consideration. 

If  we  compare  the  total  nourishing  qualities  of  twenty  tons  of 
green  corn  before  ensilage  with  10  tons  of  sugar  beets,  we  shall 
find  that  the  total  of  digestible  nutrients  is  3,320  pounds  for 
green  corn  and  3,560  pounds  for  sugar  beets,  or  a  difference  of 
240  pounds.  Such  are  the  facts  at  the  harvesting.  After  several 
months  have  elapsed,  the  ensilage  has  undergone  considerable 
change,  and  its  volume  has  been  purposely  diminished  by 
weights  placed  on  its  upper  surface.  If  great  care  has  been 
taken  in  preparing  this  ensilage,  there  is  but  slight  danger  of 
excessive  fermentation  caused  by  oxygen  remaining  impris- 
oned in  the  mass.  If  we  compare  these  difficulties  with  the 
simple  siloing  of  beets,  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  these  roots, 
for  winter  feeding,  offer  many  advantages  over  green  corn- 
fodder.  Their  siloing  may  be  effected  at  a  nominal  expense  on 
the  ground  upon  which  the  roots  were  grown,  it  being  then 
simply  necessary  to  place  them  in  triangular  piles  and  cover 
their  outer  surface  with  a  thickness  of  earth  varying  with  the 
severity  of  the  winter.  There  they  remain  for  several  months, 
undergoing  practically  no  change  in  nourishing  qualities.  Their 
consumption  need  take  place  only  when  required  at  the  stable. 
The  farmer  consequently  need  not  make  an  immediate  outlay  of 
money  for  building  silos,  or  hauling  the  entire  crop  without 
delay,  whereas  it  is  admitted  that  the  quality  of  green  corn  fodder 
decreases  slightly  a  few  days  after  cutting,  if  not  siloed  at  once. 
Large  and  small  Many  farmers  are  under  a  very  erroneous  impression  regard- 
beets  in  cattle-  jDg  ^he  value  of  reasonably  small  beets  for  cattle-feeding,  and 
continue  in  some  of  the  New  England  States  to  cultivate  man- 
golds with  considerable  distance  between  rows;  they  thus  obtain 
crops  of  30  and  35  tons  to  the  acre.  Some  of  these  roots  have 
an  individual  weight  of  nearly  20  Ibs. ;  analysis  would  show 
them  to  be  of  a  very  spongy  texture  and  to  contain  not  more 
than  8.5  per  cent,  dry  matter  and  91.5  per  cent,  water,  holding 
in  solution  about  6  per  cent,  sugar.  Such  roots  are  frequently 
fed  to  cattle  during  the  winter  in  quantities  corresponding  to 
132  Ibs.  per  diem,  or  11  Ibs.  of  dry  matter,  while  if  small  beets 
of  this  variety  had  been  used  the  dry  matter  would  have  been 
at  least  20  Ibs. 


EXPERIMENTS    IN    FEEDING    BEETS.  79 

During  visits  to  agricultural  fairs  in  several  farming  cen- 
tres of  the  country,  it  has  frequently  been  noticed  that  the 
rural  population  are  attracted  by  these  giant  beets.  Their  use 
should  be  absolutely  abandoned.  If  farmers  persist  in  using 
mangolds  let  them  be  cultivated  in  rows  much  nearer  together 
than  they  now  are.  The  texture  of  the  roots  thus  obtained  will 
be  firmer  and  the  dry  matter  percentage  much  higher,  which 
means  a  far  greater  fattening  efficiency  than  has  hitherto  been 
realized. 

If  we  admit  that  one  acre  of  land,  under  favorable  conditions,     Sugar-beets 
yields  two  and  one-half  tons  of   clover-hay,   or  about  5,000  more  Protitable 
pounds,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  feed  a  milch  cow  for  ^£SL= 
171  days,  assuming  that  a  cow's  daily  average  consumption  is 
35  pounds,    which   figure  is  allowable.      The  total  digestible 
nutrients  which  this  ration  contains  is  16.45  pounds.     Ten  tons 
of  sugar-beets  contain  3,560  pounds  of  digestible  nutrient,  or 
sufficient  to  feed  a  cow  for  ^  =  215  days,  showing  that  the 
resulting  theoretical  nutritive  product  from  one  acre  would  feed 
a  cow  44  days  longer,  if  beets  were  grown  rather  than  hay. 

Experiments  in  Feeding  Beets  to  COTVS  and  Slieep  in    Preliminary  re. 
tlie  United  States.  marks. 

We  are  convinced  that  the  introduction  of  the  sugar  beet  into 
farming  centers  of  the  country  is  destined  to  bring  about  great 
changes  in  the  existing  dairying  process.  Milk  and  butter  will 
become  cheaper  than  they  now  are,  and  the  community  at  large 
will  be  benefited.  To  have  during  the  winter  months  a  fodder 
such  as  beet-pulp  refuse  from  a  factory,  that  may  be  purchased 
for  a  nominal  sum,  has  advantages  for  stall-fed  cattle  that  no 
other  feed  (possibly  excepting  corn  ensilage)  can  offer. 

Before  discussing  the  question  in  all  its  details  it  is  important 
to  know7  first  what  has  been  done  in  feeding  beets  to  farm 
animals  in  the  United  States.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  no  more 
than  a  passing  interest  has  been  taken  in  this  important  subject 
by  the  leading  experiment  stations  of  the  country.  Most  of  the 
directors  of  stations  realize  that  the  question  has  been  neglected, 
and  they  propose  giving  it,  in  the  not-distant  future,  the  atten- 
tion it  deserves.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Ohio  experiment  sta- 


80       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

tion  has  done  some  excellent  work.  In  Nebraska  the  active 
interest  shown  in  beet  cultivation  has  led  to  a  general  utilization 
of  thousands  of  tons  of  refuse  pulp  from  Grand  Island  and  Nor- 
folk factories. 

As  farmers  are  not  prone  to  (scientific  observation,  it  will  fall 
upon  the  experiment  stations  to  take  the  matter  in  hand.  Prof. 
Nicholson  says:  "Next  to  the  matter  of  sugar  production 
itself,  I  regard  it  [feeding  cattle  on  beets  and  beet  refuse]  as  the 
most  important  question  to  be  studied  experimentally  in  con- 
nection with  the  beet-sugar  industry." 

The  question  of  sugar-beet  feeding  has  been  very  fully  dis- 
cussed by  Dr.  Goessmann,  of  Massachusetts,  who  for  years  used 
beets  in  rations  for  cattle.  He  says:'*  "Sugar-beets  when  fed 
pound  for  pound  of  dry  matter,  in  place  of  hay  rations,  with  the 
same  kind  and  quantity  of  grain-feed,  have  raised,  almost  with- 
out exception,  the  temporary  yield  of  milk,  exceeding,  as  a  rule, 
the  corn  ensilage  in  that  direction.  *  *  *  Corn  ensilage,  as  well 
as  roots,  proved  best  when  fed  in  place  of  one-fourth  to  one- 
half  of  the  full  hay  ration.  From  twenty-five  to  twenty-seven 
pounds  of  roots,  or  from  thirty-five  to  forty  pounds  of  com 
ensilage  per  day  (with  all  the  hay  needful  to  satisfy  the  animal 
in  either  case)  seems,  for  various  reasons,  a  good  proportion, 
allowing  the  stated  kind  and  quantity  of  grain-feed." 

In  comparing  beets  with  turnips,  in  1888,  Dr.  Goessmann 
said  that  he  considered  one  ton  of  the  improved  variety  of  good 
sugar  beets  equal  to  2  or  2^  tons  of  turnips.  The  experiments 
in  Illinois  commenced  some  years  since. 

In  Pennsylvania  Prof.  Armsby  has  given  sugar  beets  a  most 
extended  trial.  The  following  statement  emanates  from  the 
Pennsylvania  State  College  Experiment  Station:  "  It  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  according  to  the  standard  authorities,  the  sugar 
beet  and  its  pulp  may  be  considered  entirely  digestible;  further- 
more, it  stimulates  the  appetite  for  other  fodders,  which  silage 
does  not  do  to  the  same  extent.  However,  in  the  feeding  ex- 
periment, involving  two  lots  of  five  cows  each,  and  covering 


*  Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. 


CORN    SILAGE    AND    ROOTS.  81 

three  periods  of  twelve  days,  one  hundred  pounds  of  digestible 
matter  of  the  silage  ration  produced  131.92  Ibs.  of  milk  and 
7.21  Ibs.  of  butter;  and  with  the  root  ration  137.30  Ibs.  of  milk 
and  6.53  Ibs.  of  butter.  When  the  two  lots  of  cows  were  fed 
alike,  and  on  a  combined  ration  of  roots  and  silage,  the  silage 
lot  produced  per  100  Ibs.  of  digestible  matter  consumed  139  Ibs. 
milk  and  6.79  Ibs.  of  butter;  the  root  lot  150  Ibs.  milk  and 
6. 46  Ibs.  butter." 

At  the  Pennsylvania  State  College  *  the  supply  of  roots  was  Comparison  of 
very  small  and  the  period  during  which  they  were  fed  was    corn  Sllafle 
short.     Every  farmer  is  aware,  from  a  practical  standpoint,  of 
the  increased  yield  of  richer  milk  when  feeding  roots  in  connec-       covvs 
tion  with,  or  in  place  of,  corn  stored  during  the  winter. 

Feeding  with  roots  (beets,  mangel -wurzels  and  rutabagas) 
did  not  take  the  place  of  silage  until  the  third  week  of  the  ex- 
periment. During  one  week  only  31  Ibs.  sugar-beets  were  fed; 
the  week  that  followed  52  Ibs.  mangel-wurzels  were  used,  and 
these  were  followed  by  63J  Ibs.  rutabagas  in  place  of  40  Ibs. 
silage.  During  the  entire  experiment  hay  was  fed.  The  trials 
are  to  be  repeated  on  a  future  occasion.  It  was  concluded  that 
more  and  richer  milk  was  obtained  while  roots  were  used. 

An  interesting  fact  is,  that  while  silage,  etc.,  were  constantly 
refused  by  the  cows,  they  ate  with  avidity  the  entire  quantity 
of  roots  offered.  While  with  silage  ration  the  average  milk  ob- 
tained was  14.29  Ibs.  per  diem,  the  average  was  18.01  Ibs.  with 
roots.  The  fatty  matter  in  the  milk  in  the  first  case  was  0.72 
Ib. ,  in  the  other,  0. 81  Ib.  The  water  drunk  with  a  silage  ration 
was  36  Ibs.,  but  with  root  ration  it  was  only  28  Ibs.  The 
quantity  of  water  used  continued  to  decrease  w^hen  silage  was 
substituted  for  roots. 

The  two  cows  used  in  Dr.  Goessmann's  experiments  f  were 
crosses  of  native  stock  and  Ayrshires;  they  were  at  same  milk- 
ing periods,  four  weeks  after  calving.  The  daily  diet  of  both 
cows  consisted,  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment,  of  3J  Ibs.  of 

*  Report  of  1890. 

t  Bulletin  No.  22,  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  October, 

1836. 


82  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

corn-meal,  an  equal  weight  of  wheat  bran  and  all  the  hay  they 
would  eat.  The  same  fodder  mixture,  as  far  as  quality  and 
quantity  are  concerned,  was  also  used  for  some  time  as  'daily 
feed  at  the  end  of  the  experiment;  the  object  in  view  was  to 
determine  the  natural  shrinkage  in  daily  yield  of  milk  during 
•  the  time  occupied  by  the  experiment. 

On  examining  the  results  obtained  we  find,  that  for  one  cow 
the  yield  in  milk  fell  from  14.2  quarts  per  diem  to  12.8  quarts  as 
soon  as  20.6  Ibs.  corn  ensilage  was  substituted  for  27  Ibs.  beets 
in  the  daily  ration.  With  the  other  cow  a  similar  change  took 
place,  but  not  so  suddenly.  The  beets  used  in  these  experi- 
ments were  of  a  kind  known  as  Lane's  improved;  their  per- 
centage of  dry  matter  was  16.  With  regular  sugar-beets,  of  an 
imported  variety,  more  dry  matter  could  have  been  furnished 
for  the  same  weight  of  roots  eaten.  In  estimating  the  cost  of 
feed  per  quart  of  milk,  $5.00  per  ton  were  allowed  for  beets  that 
were  in  reality  worth  very  much  less;  and  in  consequence  the 
cost  of  the  product  is  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  balance  sheet. 
Corn  silage  The  Wisconsin  experiments  *  in  feeding  to  sheep  various  fod- 
and  clover  ^ergj  ^{^  the  view  of  determining  which  is  most  profitable  as  a 
su  ar-beet'  W0°^  anc^  mea*  Pr°ducer,  offer  but  a  secondary  interest  so  far  as 
sugar  beets  are  concerned.  A  flock  of  twenty-four  sheep  was 
experimented  with,  the  first  series  of  twelve  being  divided  into 
three  lots  of  four  sheep  each.  These  during  the  entire  feeding 
season  received  daily  the  same  quantities  of  grain  and  sugar 
beets;  under  such  circumstances  one  cannot  determine  within 
what  limits  sugar  beets  influenced  the  results. 

In  the  second  group  of  twelve  the  lots  also  consisted  of  four 
sheep  each,  the  object  being  to  make  a  comparison  between  corn 
silage,  clover  silage  and  sugar  beets.  We  must  take  exception 
to  one  assertion,  that  "in  all  cases  the  sheep  were  given  as 
much  of  the  succulent  foods  as  they  would  eat."  During  the 
first  period  of  one  week  112  Ibs.  of  beets  were  fed  to  all;  and 
this  was  continued  for  three  weeks.  The  increase  of  weight, 
which  was  at  first  6  Ibs.  per  week,  after  the  third  week  was  16 

*  Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  Wis- 
consin, 1892. 


SILAGE    AND    FIELD    BEETS.  83 

Ibs.  The  total  sugar  beets  then  furnished  was  only  84  Ibs.  per 
week,  and  there  followed  a  loss  of  4  Ibs.  One  month  afterwards 
the  increase  of  weight  per  week  was  16  Ibs.,  but  the  week  after- 
wards it  fell  to  a  loss  of  6  Ibs.  without  any  possible  reason.* 

The  increase  of  weight  during  eight  weeks'  feeding  was  28 
Ibs.  with  756  Ibs.  sugar-beets,  and  it  was  29  Ibs.  with  600  Ibs. 
clover  silage,  but  only  13  Ibs.  with  510  Ibs.  corn  silage.  Dur- 
ing this  period  all  the  sugar-beets  furnished  were  eaten,  while 
with  clover  silage  89  Ibs.  were  refused. 

We  are  convinced  that  the  sheep  did  not  receive  all  the  sugar- 
beets  they  could  eat;  the  very  fact  that  they  ate  all  furnished 
shows  this  to  have  been  the  case.  If  the  roots  had  been  fed  ad 
libitum  we  are  sure  that  the  increase  of  weight  would  have  been 
far  greater  than  that  obtained  in  the  experiment. 

The  person  who  had  charge  of  these  experiments  said  that 
sugar-beets  l '  were  liked  by  the  sheep,  but  they  cannot  be  said 
to  equal  either  of  the  other  succulent  fodders  used.  They  are 
apt  to  induce  scouring  if  fed  in  quantities  of  over  4  Ibs.  daily  to 
each  animal."  We  consider  that  further  experiments  are  neces- 
sary in  order  to  determine  within  what  limits  this  is  true.  If 
4  Ibs.  is  the  limit  per  diem,  why  should  3  Ibs.  be  subsequently 
fed? 

In  the  experiments  to  determine  the  influence  of  different 
rations  on  the  growth  of  wool,  sugar-beets  are  not  a  factor  in  the 
results,  so  they  need  not  be  considered  in  the  present  writing. 

There  is  as  much  difference  between  field  beets  and  sugar  Relative  values  of 
beets  as  there  is  between  a  poor  mangel  and  sugar  beets:  hence  sllafle  and  field 

bcpts  in  the  nro- 

any  conclusions  drawn  from  experiments  in  feeding  field  beets 
to  cattle  for  the  production  of  milk  are  of  secondary  import- 
ance as  compared  with  the  use  of  sugar  beets;  the  dry  matter 
in  the  two  cases  is  very  different.  Experiments  in  feeding  at 
the  Ohio  experiment  station  f  were  made  with  very  large  and 
coarse  beets,  and  the  results  obtained  are  not  as  conclusive  as  if 
superior  sugar  beets  had  been  used  under  the  same  conditions. 

*  A  winter  ration  said  to  give  good  results  for  rams  weighing  180  Ibs.  is  3.3 
Ibs.  hay,  4.4  Ibs.  sugar-beets  and  1.3  Ib.  vetch  hay. 

f  Vol.  II.,  No.  3,  second  series;  No.  10,  June,  1889. 


84 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


It  is  interesting,  however,  to  note  that  they  held  their  own 
against  the  very  best  corn  silage,  under  the  eyes  of  thoroughly 
scientific  investigators. 

A  herd  of  twelve  cows  was  sub-divided  into  four  lots,  A,  B, 
C,  D,  of  three  cows  each.  Great  care  was  taken  to  have  the 
conditions  in  each  case  exactly  the  same,  as  regards  character- 
istics and  milk-producing  qualities.  The  cows  during  the 
entire  experiment  were  fed  upon  a  uniform  ration  of  10  Ibs. 
clover  hay,  2  Ibs.  corn  meal  and  4  Ibs.  wheat  bran.  A  received 
40  Ibs.  corn  silage  per  diem,  and  B  50  Ibs.  beets  during  the 
same  interval.  The  following  statement  was  made  by  the  ex- 
perimenters : 

' '  The  feeding  of  field  beets  has  taught  us  that  while  most 
cows  will  take  fifty  pounds  beets  per  day,  without  any  unfavor- 
able effect  upon  health  or  appetite,  it  is  not  always  safe  to  feed 
more  than  this  quantity;  and  hence  it  was  deemed  advisable  to 
increase  the  dry  matter  of  the  beet  ration  by  five  pounds  of 
hay." 

In  these  experiments  it  is  interesting  to  observe  the  fact,  that 
from  first  to  last  the  cows  ate  with  avidity  all  beets  placed  at 
their  disposal,  and  would  have  eaten  more  had  it  been  given 
them.  On  the  other  hand,  the  silage  refused  by  a  single  cow 
during  a  period  of  two  weeks  has  been  as  high  as  120.5  Ibs. 
With  a  view  to  presenting  the  facts  more  plainly  the  following 
table  has  been  prepared: 

SILAGE  vs.  BEETS,  SHOWING  FEED  REFUSED. 


PERIOD  I. 

PERIOD  II. 

PERIOD  III. 

PEI 

£ 

UOD 

A  
$ 

I 

IV. 

~i 

53 

>» 
• 

n 

H 

i 

33 

1 

15 

A 

a3 

i 

i 

sA 
• 
W 

1 

1 

^ 

a 

56.5 
0.5 

3 

0 

0 

& 

186.0 

a 

58.0 
1.0 

$ 
0 

0 

a 

147.0 

I 

96.5 
27.0 

a 

0 
0 

A 

159.5 

87.0 
24 

3 

0 
0 

263.0 

Series  B  fed  on  beets   

The  fact  that  three  cows  should  refuse  298.5  pounds  hay  and 


SILAGE    AND    FIELD    BEETS. 


85 


755.5  Ibs.  silage  during  two  months,  does  not  show  that  the 
cows  experimented  on  were  highly  pleased  with  the  rations 
furnished.  It  may  be  noticed  that  all  the  beets  offered  were 
eaten,  and  only  32.5  Ibs.  hay  were  refused.  If  towards  the  end 
of  Period  II  slight  changes  had  been  made  in  the  regime,  we 
are  convinced  that  all  the  hay  in  series  B  would  have  been  eaten. 

The  fat  estimation  in  milk  does  not  show  that  there  was  any 
special  advantage  of  silage  over  beets. 

From  the  following  table  we  conclude,  that  during  two 
months  the  silage  gave  707  Ibs.  milk,  while  beets  during  the 
same  period  gave  932  Ibs. ,  or  a  difference  of  225  Ibs.  milk  in 
favor  of  beets.  The  gain  in  weight  with  silage,  as  compared 
with  beets,  can  be  of  no  possible  moment,  as  it  is  not  unusual 
to  find  important  differences  during  an  interval  of  24  hours. 

TOTAL  MILK  PRODUCED,  AND  GAIN  AND  Loss  IN  WEIGHT. 


MILK  PRODUCED. 
Period. 

GAIN(  +  )  OR  LOSS  (  —  ) 
IN  WEIGHT. 

Period. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

I. 

n. 

III. 

IV. 

178.0 
230.0 

179.4 
225.9 

175.3 
239.6 

174.2 
236.1 

+22 
—13 

+14 
+  8 

+15 

+  1 

—3 

+4 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  a  portion  of  the  beets  was  lost  dur- 
ing warm  weather,  and  that  the  roots  used  in  the  second  series 
of  experiments  were  large  and  coarse,  containing  but  11.69  per 
cent,  dry  matter.  The  inferiority  of  such  roots  becomes  evi- 
dent when  it  is  known  that  superior  beets  contain  24  per  cent, 
dry  matter.  Roots  such  as  used  by  the  Ohio  station  were  very 
little  superior  to  ordinary  mangels.  Under  these  circumstances, 
in  order  to  feed  beets  so  that  total  dry  matter  should  be  equal 
to  that  contained  in  silage  ration,  the  weight  of  beets  fed 
reached  60  Ibs.  per  diem.  To  the  rations  in  each  case  six 
pounds  of  bran  were  added,  with  good  clover  hay  fed  ad  libitum. 

These  experiments  showed  that  14  Ibs.  of  hay  per  diem  were 


86 


FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


ample  for  silage-fed  cows.  On  the  other  hand,  the  beet-fed 
cows  consumed  considerably  more  than  that  quantity;  this  was 
a  very  encouraging  result,  as  previously  mentioned.  The 
principle  of  cattle-fattening,  as  already  stated,  is  to  force  con- 
sumption of  fodder  and  whatever  causes  this  brings  the  de- 
sired result.  While  the  silage  ration  was  only  27  Ibs.  per  diem, 
the  stuff  was  not  eaten  with  the  same  avidity  as  beets.  The 
average  daily  yield  of  milk  with  and  without  beets  in  these 
experiments  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

AVERAGE  DAILY  YIELD  OF  MILK  WITH  AND  WITHOUT  BEETS  IN  EATION. 
OHIO  STATION,  1890. 


Without  beets. 

With  beets. 

Advantage  in 
favor  of  beets. 

220  oz 

240  oz 

20  07 

191  oz 

214  Oz 

23  oz 

During  these  experiments  the  weekly  gain  or  loss  of  weight 
with  and  without  beets  was  4  to  14  Ibs.  in  favor  of  beets. 
1 '  There  was  a  marked  tendency  to  increase  in  live  weight  dur- 
ing the  periods  when  beets'  were  fed,  and  to  fall  off  when  on 
silage."  As  regards  milk  at  the  station,  it  was  found  that  dur- 
ing 1890  "  whenever  the  feed  was  changed  to  silage  there  was  a 
rapid  falling  off  in  yield  of  milk,  and  whenever  it  was  changed 
to  beets  this  falling  off  was  checked,  and  in  several  instances 
the  flow  increased.  *  *  *  In  respect  to  the  milk-flow,  there- 
fore, the  results  *  *  *  confirm  those  of  previous  years,  indicat- 
ing that  beets  are  more  favorable  to  milk-production  than  corn 
silage. ' ' 

One  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  these  experiments 
was  the  decline  in  live  weight  with  a  decrease  in  flow  of  milk 
when  feeding  silage,  which  is  a  most  important  argument  in 
favor  of  beets. 

Our  readers  should  not  forget  that  numerous  European  ex- 
periments point  to  the  fact  that  when  beets  are  fed  all  their  dry 
matter  is  digested.  On  the  other  hand,  experiments  in  Wis- 


SILAGE    AND    FIELD    BEETS.  87 

consin,  Pennsylvania,  and  other  states,  show  that  with  silage 
63  per  cent,  only  is  assimilated. 

It  is  admitted  that  all  items  such  as  harvesting,  siloing,  etc. , 
for  beets,  make  the  cost  $37.75  per  acre,  while  for  producing 
and  siloing  one  acre  of  corn  requires  $31.25.  The  silage  con- 
tained 4,400  Ibs.  digestible  dry  matter,  while  the  beets  con- 
tained 3,750  Ibs.  of  the  same.  This  difference  would  appear  to 
counterbalance  the  359  Ibs.  of  milk  in  favor  of  beets,  not  to 
mention  the  increase  of  weight.  A  fact  in  this  argument  that  is 
generally  overlooked  is,  that  for  the  sum  allowed  for  cultivation 
of  one  acre  of  beets,  superior  sugar  beets  might  be  obtained 
averaging  18  per  cent,  dry  matter.  This  means  a  total  of 
nearly  6,000  Ibs.  digestible  dry  matter  per  acre.  The  cost  of 
such  in  beets  is  0.6  c.,  and  in  silage  0.7  c.  All  these  figures 
must  vary  with  circumstances. 

The  cows  fed  solely  on  beets  consumed  20.1  Ibs.  dry  matter 
per  1000  Ibs.  of  their  weight,  while  silage-fed  cows  consumed 
20.9  Ibs.  In  both  these  cases  the  consumption  was  consider- 
ably below  the  standard  of  24  Ibs.  The  beet-fed  cows  were 
underfed,  and  we  are  convinced  that  if  they  had  had  the  food 
they  required,  their  milk-producing  qualities  would  have  been 
greater,  and  their  weight  would  have  increased  instead  of  re- 
maining stationary,  as  it  did  during  the  eight  weeks  the  experi- 
ment lasted.  It  would  be  interesting  to  draw  some  comparison 
as  to  the  cost  of  feeding  with  silage  and  beets.  If  the  yield  of 
corn  and  beets  is  about  the  same  per  acre,  the  siloing  of  corn 

is  verv  much  more  expensive  than  that  of  beets.     The  exhaust- 

-f 
ing  effect  of  a  beet  crop  upon  the  soil  on  a  well-organized  farm 

is  nothing  like  as  great  as  the  average  agronomist  supposes,  as 
at  least  80  per  cent,  of  all  salts  absorbed  are  returned  in  the 
shape  of  a  fertilizer;  the  remaining  20  per  cent,  is  in  the 
milk  sold. 

The  problem  of  fattening  animals  properly  is  to  make  them 
eat  as  much  as  possible,  since  at  least  -^  of  such  food  is  retained 
and  transformed  mainly  into  fat.  It  is  possible  to  reach  a  limit 
of  increase  of  4.5  Ibs.  per  diem.  It  may  seem  incredible,  but 
it  is  possible  to  force  the  consumption  of  dry  matter  to  44  Ibs. 
per  diem.  The  increase  in  weight  continues  until  the  end  of 


88       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

second  period;  during  the  last  period  the  ration  should  take  a 
new  shape. 

As  regards  the  foregoing  experiments,  silage  vs.  beets,  we 
would  say:  If  the  Ohio  station  had  used  beets  of  a  quality  culti- 
vated during  1891-92,*  the  roots  would  have  averaged  15.5  per 
cent,  dry  matter  instead  of  10  per  cent.,  as  admitted  in  the 
above  feeding  experiments.  Under  these  circumstances,  about 
32  Ibs.  beets  would  have  given  the  same  result  as  50  Ibs.  beets 
such  as  were  used,  and  it  would  have  been  possible  to  push  the 
daily  consumption  very  much  beyond  the  limit  attempted.  It 
is  admitted  that  beets  in  Ohio  would  certainly  average  11  tons 
per  acre  and  as  their  cost  of  cultivation,  including  harvesting 
and  siloing,  is  $44.00,  the  cost  per  ton  is  $4.00  or  about  0.2 
cents  per  Ib. 

If  we  admit  that  corn  silage  is  worth  $2.50  per  ton,  its  cost 
per  Ib.  is  1.2  cents,  consequently  40  Ibs.  silage  costs  5.2  cents 
per  diem,  while  sugar  beets  cost  6.4  cents,  or  a  difference  of  1.2 
cents  to  produce  3.7  Ibs.  of  milk.  This,  in  itself,  would  be  a 
most  excellent  investment.  These  contrasts  would  have  been 
still  greater  had  better  beet  seed  been  used.  Not  only  would  it 
have  been  shown  from  a  milk-and-butter  point  of  view,  but  also 
in  actual  gain  in  flesh.  In  Bulletin  No.  2,  1892,  the  following 
statement  is  made:  "It  is  possible  to  produce  on  an  average  as 
many  pounds  of  sugar  beets  per  acre  as  of  mangels;  and  since 
the  average  analysis  shows  fifty  per  cent,  more  dry  matter,  the 
conclusion  reached  is,  that  one  ton  of  average  sugar  beets  is 
worth  as  much  for  feeding  purposes  as  1-J-  tons  of  average 
mangel-wurzel." 

The  comparison  between  corn  silage  and  sugar   beets  was 

further  made  by  a  new  series  of  investigations  during  1890. f 

Comparison  be-      Very   important   experiments   have   been   made   under    the 

tween  potatoes  auspices   of    the   Iowa   experiment   station  J   with   a   view   to 

e  s*     determining  the  comparative  value  of  sugar  beets  and  potatoes  in 

*  Bulletin,  No.  2,  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1892. 
f  Bulletin,  No.  5,  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1890. 
J  Bulletin  No.  17,  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1892. 


COMPARISON    BETWEEN    POTATOES    AND    BEETS. 


89 


the  production  of  milk,  cream  and  butter.  To  facilitate  under- 
standing the  Iowa  data  the  results  have  been  tabulated  as 
follows : 

RESULTS  OBTAINED  BY  FEEDING  A  SHORT-HORN  Cow  AND  A  HOLSTEIN 
HEIFER  ON  BEETS. 


o  •_ 

^ 

rib 

•II 

r3 

c 

>  s    ' 

s 

| 

1 

"S  £ 

H 
H 

1 
1 

Ration. 

(^ 
i-  «<-.    <U 
r.    Z    — 

S 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

min. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

cents. 

80.5 

13.5 

9.0 

12 

3.75 

50 

20 

(January  18th.  ) 

\ 

84  0 

10  75 

8  0 

11 

3  75 

20 

18-20 

(January  25th.) 

Q  40 

14  75 

9  25 

25 

450 

20 

21  22 

(  February  22d.) 

82.8 

8.75 

4.0 

20 

From  these  figures  we  conclude  that  from  20.7  Ibs.  milk  there 
was  made  1  Ib.  butter  worth  20  cents  per  Ib. 


RESULTS   OBTAINED   BY   FEEDING  A   SHORT-HORN   Cow  AND  A  JERSEY 
HEIFER  ON  POTATOES. 


. 

* 

'! 

«{ 

| 

J 

§S 

lla 

s 

a 

pq 

H 

« 

i 

* 

Ibs. 
54 

Ibs. 
10  ° 

Ibs. 
6  5 

min. 
15 

Ibs. 
3  0 

Ibs. 
40 

cents. 
20 

Second  churning  

46 

5.25 

3.0 

22 

1.5 

20 

16  to  17 

Third  churning  

34 

5.75 

2.75 

20 

2.2 

10 

18  to  19 

45 

4  08 

?S 

18.3 

90  FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR   BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

We  conclude  that  from  19.5  Ibs.  milk  there  was  made  1  Ib. 
butter  worth  18. 3c.  per  Ib. 

From  February  2nd  to  22nd  the  cows  fed  on  beets  gave  1.056 
Ibs.  milk,  those  on  potatoes  during  same  period  581  Ibs.  milk. 
If  we  admit  the  foregoing  averages,  there  would  be  extracted 
51  Ibs.  butter  from  beet  milk  worth  $10.00,  from  the  potato 
milk  30  Ibs.  butter  worth  $5.50,  or  $4.50  in  favor  of  beets,  dur- 
ing a  period  of  20  days.  To  these  profits  must  be  added  the 
cream  and  buttermilk,  which  with  beets  is  nearly  double  that 
obtained  from  potatoes. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  determine  the  comparative  fertiliz- 
ing value  of  the  manure  from  cows  fed  upon  potatoes  and  beets. 
One  fact  appears  to  us  certain,  that  50  Ibs.  beets  at  $4.00  per 
ton  are  always  cheaper  than  40  Ibs.  potatoes,  even  at  the  same 
market  price,  and  admitting  that  the  butter  returns  would  be 
the  same  (?).  Beet  butter  has  its  own  characteristic  color,  and 
will  keep  for  months,  while  potato  butter  has  no  keeping  quali- 
ties and  is  colorless. 

It  has  been  concluded  that  high-grade  butter  cannot  be  made 
when  cows  eat  more  than  10  Ibs.  potatoes  per  diem.  When  cows 
are  eating  20  Ibs.  beets  per  diem  no  coloring  matter  need  be  used 
and  the  resulting  butter  is  of  a  superior  quality  and  has  a  most 
excellent  flavor  while  potato  butter  lacks  flavor.  These  feeding 
experiments  were  conducted  with  considerable  care,  the  ration 
being  gradually  increased,  and  then  decreased.  An  important 
fact  noticed  was,  that  cows  will  continue  to  eat  50  Ibs.  beets 
with  relish,  but  after  a  time  refuse  the  40  Ibs.  potatoes. 

Other  experiments  have  been  made  to  determine  the  value  of 

Other  experj-   potatoes  and  roots  for  fattening  lambs.*     The  test  was  made 

ments'       with  36  lambs  divided  into  3  lots  of  12  each.     The  three  lots 

consumed  about  the  same  quantity  of  grain,  hay  and  roots. 

The  table  herewith  shows  the  result  of  these  tests: 

*  Bulletin  No.  59,  Minnesota  Agri.  Exp.  Station,  1899. 


COMPARISON    BETWEEN    POTATOES    AND    BEETS. 


91 


COMPARATIVE  RESULTS  OBTAINED  BY  FEEDING  LAMBS  WITH  POTATOES, 
BEETS  AND  MANGELS. 


eJl 

'S  § 

1 

b 

f"""  -** 

c 

g  a 

^  c 

•-H 

•"•  *.  • 

!a 

11 

|1 

1 

§c^      X 

§c^ 

8-*  . 

«4-   'fi 

G.,0 

£  *"  =  p1 

;_-      S* 

^L 

O  3 

-3  6 

2^TS  & 

>     &. 

§  ^^ 

to  a, 

l-s 

^ 

^ 

fe 

3 

H 

T  ot  1    notatops 

50  6  lh«? 

QO  Q  llv, 

3.52  Ibs. 

4.94  cents. 

§0.86 

U  V.  U    1U5. 

O  —  .  J7   1  U>. 

Lot  2  m£in&rel*wiii'zel  •  •  •   • 

50.8  " 

30.6   " 

3.52   " 

4.20     " 

1.07 

50.6  " 

34.6   " 

3.57   " 

3.78     " 

1.24 

These  figures  speak  for  themselves — with  beets  the  average 
gain,  cost  and  profit  were  greater  than  with  either  mangel- 
wurzels  or  potatoes. 

In  experiments  made  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  sugar 
beets  for  steers  and  sheep,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  ' '  the  lot 
fed  on  alfalfa  and  sugar  beets  returned  a  net  profit,  above  a  fair 
price  for  feed  given,  of  83.45  apiece,  and  the  lot  fed  on  alfalfa 
and  grain  a  loss  of  $2. 38  apiece. ' '  The  sugar  beets  were  valued 
at  83.50  per  ton.  Like  experiments  were  made  with  sheep. 
The  conclusion  was  that  the  lot  fed  hay  and  sugar  beets  during 
the  second  period  gave  better  returns  than  those  fed  on  hay 
alone.* 

Experiments  to  determine  the  comparative  feeding  value  of 
silage,  sugar  beets  and  mangels  were  made  at  the  Pennsylvania 
experiment  station,  the  result  of  which  experiments  is  shown 
in  the  table  herewith : 


*  Bulletin  Xo.  30,  Wyoming  Agri.  Exp.  Station,  1896. 


92  FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

COMPARATIVE  FEEDING  VALUE  OF  SILAGE,  BEETS  AND  MANGELS  FOR  Cows. 


Milk. 

Butter. 

Solids. 
Not    fat. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

141  3 

9  0 

12  1 

Lot  2,  sugar-beets  (2d  period)  .... 

152.4 

7.7 

13.3 

Lot  3,  mangel-wurzels  (2d  period). 

116.0 

6.4 

10.4 

These  figures  show  that  the  milk  production  is  in  favor  of  beets. 
Considered  as  a  whole,  these  figures  appear  to  be  slightly  in 
favor  of  silage,  the  difference,  however,  being  so  slight  that  it 
need  not  be  considered.  * 

In  New  York,  Cornell  University  has  made  some  interesting 
experiments  to  determine  the  effect  of  different  rations  in  fat- 
tening lambs.  In  these,  instead  of  sugar  beets,  mangolds  were 
used.  The  lambs  selected  were  thin  in  flesh  and  considered 
well  adapted  to  the  experiment.  We  notice  in  these  results 
several  important  facts  apparently  overlooked. 

The  sheep  were  divided  into  four  lots  of  three  each.  One  lot 
did  not  have  a  ration  suitable  to  its  requirements,  so  the  results 
obtained  in  that  special  case  need  not  be  considered.  The 
fourth  lot  received  no  roots  during  the  entire  period  of  feeding, 
and  the  total  protein  was  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  third  lot. 
The  increase  of  weight  was  80.5  per  cent,  for  second,  73  per 
cent,  for  third,  and  only  52.7  per  cent,  in  fourth  lot  (without 
roots). 

It  is  maintained  that  the  nitrogenous  food  in  the  second  case 
was  the  cause  of  the  excessive  gain;  this  may  be  true,  but  it  cer- 
tainly was  not  so  in  the  third.  The  animal  before  fattening 
weighed  51.5  Ibs.,  and  five  months  afterward  weighed  89  Ibs., 
with  a  ration  of  mangolds,  hay,  corn,  wheat,  beans,  etc.,  while 
with  wheat  bran,  cotton-seed  meal,  corn  and  timothy  hay  (no 


Report  Pennsylvania  Agri.  Exp.  Station,  1896. 


SUGAR  BEET  LEAVES  AND  TOPS.  93 

roots),  lambs  weighing  54.7  Ibs.  in  November  weighed  83.59 
Ibs.  in  April. 

Another  interesting  fact  is,  that  the  cost  of  grain  per  100  Ibs. 
with  roots  was  $6.03  to  86.36,  while  without  roots  it  was  $7.82. 
In  the  former  cases  the  digestible  nutrients  were  363.9  Ibs.  and 
383.2  Ibs.,  while  without  roots  only  351.4  Ibs.  were  digested; 
the  object  was  to  feed  all  that  would  be  readily  eaten.  A  fact 
that  we  wish  to  emphasize  especially  is,  that  roots  assist  the 
digestion  of  other  fodders,  and  force  consumption,  which  is  of 
considerable  moment.  The  two  lots  fed  with  mangolds  in  their 
ration  gave  an  increase  of  wool  of  72  and  56  Ibs.  respectively, 
while  without  roots  the  wool  weighed  46  Ibs.  As  the  protein 
in  the  last  two  cases  was  nearly  the  same,  this  result  shows  an 
increase  of  10  Ibs.  wool  in  favor  of  mangolds. 

Another  experiment  station  of  the  country,  with  a  view  to 
determining  within  what  limits  siloed  cossettes  compare  with  for- 
age beets  when  fed  to  milk  cows,  conducted  a  series  of  experi- 
ments, the  result  of  which  was  that  cows  fed  on  forage  beets 
gave  1137  quarts  of  milk  containing  79  Ibs.  fat,  while  the  re- 
siduum fed  cows  resulted  in  1105  quarts  of  milk  containing  75 
Ibs.  fat.  The  difference  is  so  slight  that  the  results  may  be  con- 
sidered identical.  The  forage  beet  ration  consisted  of  72  Ibs.  beets, 
8  Ibs.  clover  hay,  6  Ibs.  chopped  straw  and  5  Ibs.  oil  cake  for 
1000  Ibs.  live  weight.  The  other  ration  consisted  of  80  Ibs.  re- 
siduum cossettes,  to  which  were  added  9  Ibs.  chopped  straw, 
8  Ibs.  clover  hay  and  4  Ibs.  oil  cake  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight. 
Later  experiments  upon  a  very  extended  scale  have  demon- 
strated that  the  cossette  feeding  is  more  economical. 

Feeding  Sugar  Beet  Leaves  and  Tops. 

The  cultivation  of  sugar  beets  to  be  furnished  to  the  factory  for    Preliminary 
the  extraction  of  sugar  is  not  the  only  question  to  be  considered      remarks, 
by  the  farmer,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  resulting  pulp  or 
residue  has  an  enormous  value  to  the  agricultural  community. 
Besides  the  roots  proper,  one  may  harvest  a  large  quantity  of 
leaves  and  tops  which  without  being  of  any  commercial  value 
are  of  great  importance  to  the  tiller.     However,  there  are  many 
farmers  sufficiently  blind  to  overlook  the  precious  qualities  of 


94       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

these  portions  of  the  plant,  and  allow  them  to  remain  and  rot 
on  the  field  without  rendering  other  service  than  that  of  supply- 
ing a  portion  of  certain  mineral  elements — representing  plant 
food — which  have  been  absorbed  by  the  root  during  its  develop- 
ment. The  money  value  of  these  leaves  when  used  as  a  fertil- 
izer is  certainly  less  than  that  which  would  be  derived  from 
feeding  to  cattle.  Beet  leaves  and  tops  contain,  it  is  true,  a 
certain  amount  of  salts  which  are  useful  to  the  soil,  but  on  the 
other  hand  many  of  these  mineral  substances  can  be  more  ad- 
vantageously utilized  by  feeding  the  leaves  to  cattle  and  col- 
lecting the  manure;  their  fertilizing  properties  are  not  subse- 
quently lost  by  the  passage  through  the  animal's  body  and 
during  the  interval  the  stock  has  been  benefited  by  receiving  a 
good  wholesome  green  fodder  at  the  very  period  of  the  year 
when  it  is  most  relished  and  is  eaten  with  avidity.  A  difficulty  as 
regards  this  question  arises  here:  Experience  shows  that  the  best 
results  are  obtained  by  feeding  siloed  beet  leaves  during  early 
spring.  Experience  also  shows  that  barn-yard  manure  must 
not  be  applied  to  lands  during  the  season  of  planting. 

If  the  tiller  is  anxious  to  return  to  the  soil  the  salts  the 
manure  contains,  he  must  cultivate  that  year  some  other  crop 
than  beets  upon  it;  otherwise  the  resulting  roots  would  very 
probably  be  refused  at  the  factory  owing  to  their  low  coefficient 
of  purity.  When  beet-sugar  factories  are  located  near  populous 
centers,  beet  leaves  may  render  excellent  service  for  dairy  cows. 
Under  such  circumstances  farmers  should  depend  upon  their 
own  fertilizers  rather  than  on  those  from  cities,  which  are 
mainly  made  up  of  organic  matter. 

Composition  of      Chemical  analysis  of  this  residuum  demonstrates  that  the  use 
leaves  and  tops.  of  beet  leaves,  etc. ,  may  become  a  vital  question  during  those 
years  when  the  beet  harvest  has  been  unsatisfactory. 

While  such  analyses  vary  under  different  conditions,  it  is  very 
important  to  give  what  may  be  considered  an  average.  Their 
composition,  according  to  Dr.  Herzfeld,  is  as  follows: 


BEET    LEAF    STRIPPING.  95 

AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  BEET  LEAVES  AND  TOPS. 


Leaves. 

Tops. 

Entire  beet. 

\vater  

89  05 

80  10 

81  5 

Ash    

2  20* 

5  65 

0  7 

2  80 

1  99 

1  0 

o  45 

0  24 

0  i 

1  83 

1  3 

/;  50 

10  00 

In  4 

From  this  one  concludes  that  between  the  tops  and  the  entire 
beet  there  is  a  very  great  difference.  The  necks  have  double 
the  nutritive  value  of  the  leaves.  However,  when  fed  to  ani- 
mals, it  is  the  custom  to  combine  the  leaves  and  tops. 

A  glance  at  these  figures  shows  that  the  tops  contain  more 
salts  than  the  leaves;  in  raw  protein  the  leaves  have  a  slight 
advantage;  in  pure  protein  the  tops  contain  1.25  per  cent. 
while  the  leaves  contain  only  0.75  per  cent.  The  tops,  weight 
for  weight,  contain  nearly  twice  as  much  of  nitrogenous  consti- 
tuents as  are  possessed  by  the  leaves. 

As  soon  as  farmers  of  certain  sections  commence  to  realize 
the  value  of  beet  leaves  for  cattle-feeding  they  do  not  appear  to 
be  able  to  resist  the  temptation  of  stripping  the  beets  of  their 
foliage  before  the  harvesting  period  commences,  and  this  prac- 
tice means  a  considerable  reduction  in  the  ultimate  sugar  per- 
centage of  the  roots,  with  an  increase  of  the  saline  percentage. 
The  necks  of  the  beet  become  more  and  more  elongated. 
Nature  in  her  effort  to  restore  the  mutilation  sends  out  new 
leaves,  which  means  a  temporary  reduction  in  the  sugar  per- 
centage of  the  beet,  and  this  is  never  replaced,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  the  young  foliage  performs  a  certain  amount  of  sugar 
elaboration.  When  the  harvesting  period  arrives  the  tops  must 
be  removed  from  the  beets,  and  the  larger  they  are  the  smaller 
will  become  the  ultimate  yield  of  sugar  beets  per  acre;  further- 
more, the  farmer  receives  a  decreased  price  for  his  beets,  for 

*  According  to  Wolf's  analysis,  the  ash  percentage  is  1.5,  of  which  0.4  is 
potassa,  0.2  soda,  0.3  lime,  0.17  magnesia,  0.07  phosphoric  acid,  0.08  sulphuric 
acid,  0.16  silicic  acid,  and  0.13  chlorin. 


Beet  leaf 
stripping. 


96       FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

they  not  only  contain  less  sugar,  but  the  juices  are  less  pure 
than  they  would  have  been  had  the  leaf  stripping  been  prohib- 
ited. When  farmers  grow  beets  for  cattle-feeding  there  can  be 
no  objection  to  stripping. 

Early  feeding  and  gman  farmers  are  necessarily  obliged  to  feed  the  leaves  im- 
mediately, and  under  such  circumstances  there  is  a  great  waste 
of  material.  They  are  pulled  from  the  cribs  as  eaten  by  the 
live  stock  and  certain  portions  fall  on  the  ground,  are  trod  upon 
and  are  thus  lost.  This  is  why  it  is  more  economical  to  chop 
up  the  leaves  before  the  early  feeding. 

Many  farmers  allow  sheep  to  run  over  their  fields  and  eat  the 
leaves  during  their  passage.  Under  all  circumstances  such 
customs  should  be  prohibited,  as  large  quantities  of  leaves  are 
necessarily  trod  under  and  are  thus  destroyed,  which  in  reality 
means  a  waste  as  far  as  their  nutrient  value  is  concerned. 
Furthermore,  it  is  simply  folly  to  allow  freedom  to  sheep,  etc., 
at  that  period  of  the  year  when  there  is  always  danger  of  rain. 
Another  fact  not  to  be  forgotten  is  that  sheep  manure  is  not 
considered  a  desirable  fertilizer  for  sugar  beets;  but  this  would 
evidently  be  of  no  consequence  if  a  suitable  rotation  of  crops 
was  maintained. 

As  a  general  thing  as  soon  as  the  beet  harvest  commences 
residuum  feeding  is  resorted  to,  but  for  a  farmer  who  has  a 
considerable  area  devoted  to  beets  it  is  necessary  to  adopt  some 
system  of  feeding  which  will  ultimately  become  quite  an  econ- 
omy when  green  forages  are  scarce. 

Harvesting  the      It  is  urgent  in  most  cases  in  harvesting  the  beets  either  to 
crop  of  beet   form  piles  of  the  roots  on  one  hand  and  the  leaves  on  the  other, 

leaves  and  tops.  or  ^o  alternate  rows  of  leaves  and  roots,  or  again  to  form  piles  of 
the  beets  and  use  the  leaves  as  a  cover.  When  the  piles  are 
small  the  practical  results  obtained  are  more  satisfactory,  as  the 
leaves  then  are  left  on  the  ground  and  are  subsequently 
collected. 

An  average  crop  is  about  12,000  kilograms  of  leaves  and 
tops  to  the  hectare  (4.8  tons  to  the  acre),  which  may  be  com- 
posed as  follows:  25  per  cent,  for  the  tops  and  75  per  cent,  for 
the  leaves.  If  one  makes  allowance  for  the  cost  of  conveyance 
of  the  leaves  and  tops  to  the  center  of  utilization,  it  will  be 


BEET    LEAF   KEEPING.  97 

seen  that  the  losses  are  considerable  when  not  promptly  utilized, 
especially  in  cases  where  they  are  considered  as  having  fertiliz- 
ing value.  Their  nourishing  value  means  1,600  (1,408  Ibs.  to  the 
acre)  kilograms  of  dry  substance  to  the  hectare,  of  which  260 
kilograms  (228  Ibs.  to  the  acre)  are  albuminoids.  Their  value, 
which  is  frequently  only  moderately  appreciated,  is  in  reality 
such  that  it  should  not  be  neglected,  and  if  added  to  the  price 
paid  for  the  beet  at  the  factory  one  will  be  surprised  to  see  at 
what  cost  these  roots  could  be  furnished  to  the  manufacturer  by 
the  farmer;  notwithstanding  this  fact,  many  tillers  will  not  take 
the  matter  into  consideration. 

In  1873  in  estimates  of  the  possible  money  cost  of  working  a 
beet-sugar  factory  the  beet  leaves  to  be  harvested  were  frequently 
taken  inlo  consideration.  The  idea  then  was  to  utilize  them  in 
a  manner  that  has  never  since  been  realized — they  were  to  form 
a  substitute  for  tobacco. 

The  only  rational  utilization  of  beet  leaves  which  is  generally  Beet  leaf 
applied  at  the  present  day,  consists  in  keeping  them  as  a  sort  of  keeP'nS- 
sour  fodder.  The  first  experiments  at  beet  leaf  keeping  that  we 
know  of  were  made  in  1852  at  Thiede,  but  these  were  not  suc- 
cessful, for  the  simple  reason  that  air  was  allowed  to  enter  the 
silos,  which  is  very  objectionable,  as  we  shall  see  later  on. 
Since  then  many  modes  have  been  proposed  which  were  intended 
to  obviate  existing  faults,  but  none  of  these  systems  proved 
successful.  The  method  which  is  now  generally  adopted  con- 
sists in  allowing  the  leaves  to  remain  on  the  field  for  three  or 
four  days,  after  which  period  they  are  soft  and  no  longer  possess 
the  rigidity  which  would  otherwise  have  prevented  their  satis- 
factory settling  in  the  silos.  Comparative  experiments  made 
by  Muller  show  just  to  what  extent  the  method  of  placing  in 
silos  exerts  an  influence.  In  the  one  case  the  leaves  in  a  more 
or  less  wilted  condition  were  placed  in  a  silo  in  layers  and  well 
pressed  and  subsequently  covered  with  three  feet  of  earth;  in 
the  other  the  ordinary  mode  of  siloing  was  adopted. 


98  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

COMPOSITION  OF  BEET  LEAVES  SILOED  IN  Two  WAYS. 


Layers  of  Leaves. 

Regular  Siloing. 

Water  

74  95 

7Q  fi7 

•2  90 

2  fi5 

0  65 

0  54 

8  69 

7  59 

Raw  fibre  

2  79 

3  11 

0   fifi 

014 

038 

fi  qi 

Furthermore,  these  leaves  during  the  wilting  lose  part  of  the 
water,  which  may  be  considered  an  advantage.  They  should 
be  well  shaken  as  a  preliminary  operation,  with  a  view  to 
getting  rid  of  any  adhering  earth,  and  then  compressed  into 
silos  dug  out  of  the  ground,  cemented  or  not,  as  the  case  may 
be.  The  silos  are  usually  about  six  feet  in  depth;  their  length  is 
variable  and  may  suit  the  ideas  of  each  farmer.  The  width  of 
four  or  five  feet  appears  satisfactory;  the  bottom  should  have  a 
slight  slant,  say  J  inch  per  yard  and  suitable  means  for  drain- 
age. The  method  of  filling,  and  also  the  most  desirable  con- 
dition of  the  leaves  before  being  siloed,  remain  open  questions. 

There  are  various  modes  of  compressing  the  leaves  in  the 
silos,  one  of  which  consists  of  allowing  a  cart  with  \vide  tires  to 
pass  over  each  successive  layer.  This  operation  is  repeated 
several  times.  However,  precaution  should  be  taken  that  the 
wheels  of  the  wagon  do  not  pass  over  in  the  same  rut  each  time. 
In  such  cases  the  silos  have  a  width  equal  to  twice  the  spacing 
between  the  wheels  of  the  cart.  Excessive  pressure  is  not  de- 
sirable in  beet-leaf  preservation.  Experiments  show  that  leaves 
partially  lose  their  nourishing  value  when  submitted  to  great 
pressure.  The  custom  of  treading  down  the  upper  surface 
should  be  abandoned.  The  leaves  are  piled  up  several  feet 
above  upper  border  of  the  silo.  These  soon  settle  and  more 
leaves  are  thrown  on  top;  when  the  surface  remains  constant  a 
conical  pile  of  leaves  forms  the  top;  this  is  covered  with  a  layer 
of  earth,  the  thickness  of  which  depends  upon  the  ambient 
temperature.  Care  must  be  taken  that  cracks  be  well  filled,  so 
as  to  keep  out  air. 


TRANSFORMATION    IN    SILOS    AND    LOSSES.  99 

After  a  few  days  the  mass  becomes  heated,  and  there  follows  Transformation 
a  lactic  fermentation  wrhich  when  completed  leaves  the  mass  in  in  Sllos  and 
a  brown  colored  condition.  It  may  remain  in  a  perfect  state  of 
preservation  during  a  very  long  period,  lasting  for  several 
years — three  or  more.  The  fermentation  in  question  means 
a  considerable  softening  of  the  leaves  and  a  reduction  in  the  vol- 
ume of  the  exterior  portion.  The  mass  settles,  and  the  volume 
is  reduced  by  one-third  and  frequently  50  per  cent. ,  the  loss  of 
nitrogen  being  30  per  cent. ,  and  it  is  at  this  time  that  open  cre- 
vices are  noticeable  in  the  earth  covering,  through  which  there  is 
clanger  of  air  penetrating.  Under  these  circumstances  there 
would  follow  all  sorts  of  secondary  reactions  very  favorable  to 
the  existence  of  micro-organisms,  the  combined  action  of  which 
would  cause  putrefaction.  Under  all  circumstances,  it  is  advis- 
able to  carefully  close  these  openings  as  soon  as  they  are  visible. 
The  upper  stratum  always  comes  more  or  less  in  contact  with 
the  air,  and  is  consequently  the  first  to  show  signs  of  decay  or 
organic  changes  of  the  residuum  being  kept.  It  necessarily  fol- 
lows that  these  transformations  mean  a  money  loss  to  all  inter- 
ested. 

A  German  analysis  *  of  leaves  siloed  for  six  months  showed 
that  they  contained  0.136  per  cent,  oxalic  acid  soluble  in  water 
and  0.46  per  cent,  insoluble  in  water — possibly  in  the  form  of  a 
calcic  oxalate. 

Stutzer  gives  the  following  analysis  of  siloed  beet  leaves : 

Per  cent. 

Water 69.8  ^| 

Mineral  substances. .  15.9  Per  cent' 


Raw  protein 2. 2 

Cellulose 4.3 

Non-nitrogenous 6.4 

Fatty  substances   ...  1.4  J 


The  raw  protein  con 


Amides 0.4 


taine(j    ..........  -j  Non-digestible  nitric 

substances   ......  1.7 


The  excessive  mineral  percentage  was  explained  by  the  im- 
purities possibly  introduced  by  the  leaves  from  having  been  in 
contact  with  earth. 

*No  analysis  should  be  made  of  siloed  leaves  until  cleaned  and  free  from  the 
earth  collected  from  the  side  of  silos. 


100  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

It  has  been  proposed,  in  order  to  obviate  the  losses  of  these 
protein  substances,  to  have  a  cemented  bottom  in  the  silos  so  as 
to  retain  the  liquid  in  question;  but  experience  has  shown  that 
there  follows  no  increase  in  the  total  nutritive  value  of  the^final 
product;  and  furthermore  its  palatability  is  very  much  lessened. 
In  order  to  increase  the  conservation  of  siloed  leaves  it  is  desir- 
able to  add  one  per  cent,  of  ordinary  salt. 

It  may  happen  that  the  mass  becomes  excessively  heated,  and 
instead  of  lactic  acid  there  will  be  formed  acetic  acid,  resulting 
in  an  acetic  fermentation.  This  very  materially  diminishes  the 
nutritious  value  of  the  leaves  that  are  to  be  kept.  Efforts  have 
been  made  to  hasten  the  lactic  fermentation  with  the  view  of 
obviating  this  difficulty.  To  produce  lactic  acid  the  leaves  are 
moistened  during  siloing  with  sour  milk,  but  this  has  not  given 
the  results  hoped  for. 

Faulty  siloing.  Under  certain  circumstances,  which  we  regret  to  say  are  of 
very  frequent  occurrence,  the  siloing  has  been  very  badly  done, 
and  the  exterior  leaves  are  rotten.  These  may  be  removed  by 
a  spade  or  any  other  implement.  Regarding  this  question  it  is 
well  to  note  that  under  all  circumstances  there  is  necessarily  a 
certain  decomposition  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  product  being 
siloed,  and  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  person  in 
charge  is  responsible  for  the  surface  alterations  which  always 
occur,  do  what  one  may;  but  what  we  have  reference  to  is  an 
excessive  putrefaction,  such  as  is  frequently  seen  in  some  of  our 
western  farms  where  efforts  have  been  made  at  siloing  either 
leaves  or  cossettes.  Any  putrefaction  of  more  than  one  foot  be- 
low the  surface  is  extremely  faulty.  Two  or  three  inches  from 
the  surface  may  be  said  to  be  the  limit. 

Leaves  and  other      It  seldom  occurs  that  beet  leaves  are  siloed  without  the  addi- 
substances  in  tion  of  some  foreign  material,  the  object  of  which  is  extremely 
silo.       variable.      Upon  general  principles  these  leaves  are  kept  in  con- 
junction with  other  forages  in  order  to  obtain  a  compact  mass 
into  which  air  penetrates  with  difficulty.     Under  these  circum- 
stances there  is  very  much  less  danger  of  putrefaction,  and  this 
siloed  material,  which  is  of  great  value  to  the  farmer,  lasts  with- 
out undergoing  the  slightest  change  during  a  period  of  years. 

It  is  considered  desirable,  according  to  Herzfeld,  to  carry  out 


LEAVES    AND    OTHER    SUBSTANCES    IN    SILOS.  101 

the  siloing  with  alternate  layers  of  tops,  leaves  and  residuum 
cossettes. 

Under  all  circumstances  the  tops  should  never  be  separately 
siloed,  otherwise  they  would  lose  too  much  of  their  nutritive 
value  and  would  rot.  Upon  general  principles  it  is  well  to 
alternate  with  the  leaves  a  certain  number  of  layers  of  straw 
with  a  view  to  absorbing  the  excess  of  moisture  thrown  off  by 
the  leaves  and  in  this  manner  the  soil  is  prevented  from  absorb- 
ing it.  This  is  the  usual  practice. 

If  during  the  siloing  a  certain  amount  of  salt  is  added,  an 
allowance  must  be  made  for  this  fact  during  feeding  so  that  an 
excess  of  this  condiment  will  not  be  administered. 

In  certain  parts  of  Germany  visited  by  the  writer  the  beet 
leaf  siloing  is  done  in  silos  about  6  feet  deep  with  rounded 
corners,  the  bottom  slanting  slightly.  Upon  it  there  is  placed 
a  certain  layer  of  straw,  after  which  the  leaves  are  placed  to  a 
depth  of  about  5  inches,  and  the  mass  is  compressed  by  sim- 
ply stamping  upon  it.  Then  there  are  added  about  7  Ibs.  of 
salt  per  ton  of  leaves,  over  which  is  placed  a  4-inch  layer  of 
straw,  followed  by  another  5-inch  layer  of  leaves,  etc. ,  until  the 
mass  is  3  to  4  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ground. 

Many  years  since  Grouven  made  a  series  of  experiments  in 
siloing  leaves,  and  the  combination  giving  the  best  results  con- 
sisted of  2,000  Ibs.  of  leaves,  to  which  were  added  150  Ibs.  straw 
and  500  Ibs.  beet  tops.  After  6  months'  keeping  of  the  product, 
the  analysis  showed  that  the  addition  of  straw  had  a  tendency 
to  retain  the  juice  of  the  leaves,  regulating  at  the  same  time  the 
fermentation. 

First  of  all  the  sugar  contained  in  the  tops  disappears.  It  is 
found  from  experiments  that  when  the  tops  are  siloed  with  their 
leaves  they  had  better  be  well  chopped  up.  The  extractive  sub- 
stances of  the  tops  and  a  portion  of  the  cellulose  of  the  leaves 
undergo  an  acid  fermentation  and  are  thus  transformed  into 
many  complicated  constituents,  the  nutritious  value  of  which  is 
very  questionable.  Finally,  the  proteid  substances  are  trans- 
formed into  amides,  the  nutritive  power  of  which  is  very  much 
less  than  albumin  proper.  A  large  portion  of  the  disappearing 
nutritive  substances  is  changed  into  certain  compounds  that  are 
found  in  the  liquid  which  separates  or  runs  off  from  the  leaves. 


102  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,   SUGAR,  ETC. 

Soft  leaf  fodder.  Postelt  works  in  the  following  way  in  order  to  obtain  a  soft 
fodder,  as  he  calls  it.  Upon  general  principles  the  idea  is  to 
bring  about  as  rapidly  as  possible  a  temperature  of  at  least  25 
degrees  C.  [77°  F.]  in  the  midst  of  the  leaves,  and  furthermore 
to  maintain  this  temperature.  The  wilted  leaves  heat  more 
rapidly,  due  to  the  fact  that  they  contain  less  water.  They  are 
thrown  into  the  vat  in  which  a  proportionate  amount  of  chopped 
straw  is  combined.  Furthermore  a  certain  quantity  of  this  sub- 
stance is  added  without  attempting  to  compress  the  same. 
After  intervals  of  two  or  three  days  the  temperature  rises  to  50 
degrees  C.  [122°  F.].  Then  there  follows  a  daily  addition  of 
beet  leaves  so  that  the  thermometer  introduced  into  the  mass  of 
the  leaves  will  always  indicate  the  same  temperature.  This 
heating  may  be  explained  by  an  oxidation  through  the  influence 
of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  which  is  retarded  by  a  new  pressure  of 
the  leaves  forced  layer  by  layer  one  over  the  other.  Under 
these  circumstances  naturally  considerable  air  is  imprisoned 
therein.  It  has  been  suggested  that  a  certain  amount  of  lattice 
work  be  .arranged  around  the  silos  so  that  the  mass  of  leaves 
can  be  raised,  say  nine  feet,  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  and 
covered  with  moist  earth.  Precautions  should  be  taken  to  sepa- 
rate the  leaves  from  the  earth  at  the  bottom  of  silos  with  a  layer 
of  chopped  straw.  It  is  further  recommended  under  no  circum- 
stance to  add  leaves  to  the  silos  when  the  temperature  is  too 
high. 

Beet  leaf  The  Lehmann  &  Maercker  method  for  soured  leaves  has  many 
washjng.  advantages.  These  well  known  agronomists  find  that  the  wash- 
ing of  leaves,  when  they  have  been  properly  siloed,  effects  the 
elimination  of  dirt-like  substances,  which  when  allowed  to  re- 
main will,  under  all  circumstances,  give  to  animals  a  distaste 
for  what  they  are  given  to  eat,  as  the  sandy  particles  get  be- 
tween their  teeth  and  they  become  discouraged  and  reject  this 
food  later  on. 

Lehmann  washes  the  leaves  in  a  wired  basket  in  a  suitable 
tank  filled  with  water.  From  his  personal  observation  he  has 
concluded  that  under  these  circumstances  leaves  lose  1.3  per 
cent,  of  their  organic  substances,  0.5  of  protein,  0.12  fatty  sub- 
stances, 4.53  of  mineral  substances,  0.09  of  celluose,  and  0.68 


ACIDULATED    BEET    LEAVES.  103 

of  non-nitrogenous  extractive  substances?  all  of  which  are  calcu- 
lated upon  the  basis  of  soured  leaves.  Observations  show  that 
upon  an  average  the  loss  is  8.03  per  cent,  of  the  absolute  quan- 
tity of  organic  substances. 

Maercker  declares  that  the  losses,  owing  to  washing,  are  very 
much  greater  and  are  nearly  25.05  per  cent,  of  the  total  organic 
substance.  There  is  lost,  according  to  this  authority,  75  per 
cent,  of  ether-extractable  substances,  and  he  declares  that  under 
these  circumstances  it  is  very  advantageous,  as  these  constitu- 
ents are  worthless.  It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  washed 
leaves  have  the  same  nutritive  value  as  forage  beets. 

The  Mehay  mode  that  gained  considerable  favor  over  thirty  Acidulated  bfrt 
years  ago,  had  for  a  general  starting-point  a  cooking  of  the  leaves< 
leaves  in  water  containing  a  small  percentage  of  hydrochloric 
acid.  The  operation  was  conducted  in  the  following  manner: 
'  *  A  special  receptacle  of  about  530  gallons  capacity,  in  which 
the  boiling  was  done,  was  half  filled  with  water,  to  which  were 
added  about  3  quarts  of  hydrochloric  acid  at  22°  Be.  This  was 
well  stirred  so  as  to  assure  a  perfect  combination  of  the  water 
and  acid,  and  after  the  boiling  had  lasted  for  a  few  minutes 
1000  Ibs.  of  beet  leaves  with  their  tops  were  added  just  as  they 
were  collected  from  the  field  subsequent  to  the  sugar-beet 
harvesting.  The  receptacle  at  first  is  too  small  to  contain  the 
leaves  in  question,  but  as  the  boiling  continues  they  settle  and  • 
may  be  readily  kept  beneath  the  surface  of  the  acidulated 
water.  The  boiling  ceases  after  15  minutes,  when  the  leaves 
are  removed  with  wooden  pitchforks  and  allowed  to  drain  for  a 
short  period,  the  liquor  running  off  being  returned  to  the  boiler. 
Special  stress  was  placed  upon  the  importance  of  collecting 
the  leaves  upon  the  field  as  soon  as  possible,  thus  preventing 
any  possible  alteration  they  might  undergo,  as  during  such  or- 
ganic changes  they  become  possessed  of  a  characteristic  odor 
which  even  the  boiling  and  acid  treatment  do  not  overcome. 

After  a  certain  number  of  repeated  boilings  there  is  deposited 
at  the  bottom  of  the  receptacle  a  certain  quantity  of  dirt,  etc. ; 
hence  it  was  customary  to  allow  it  to  settle  entirely  and  then 
decant.  It  was  noticed  that  the  earth  always  neutralized  a 
certain  percentage  of  the  acid  used,  and  hence  it  was  import- 


104  FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

ant  to  make  allowance  for  this  loss.  It  was  argued  that  during 
this  acid  treatment  the  alkalies,  such  as  potassa  and  soda,  be- 
came potassic  and  sodic  chlorids,  and  took  the  place  of  the  or- 
ganic acids.  Far  from  reducing  the  nutritive  value  of  the  pro- 
duct, they  on  the  contrary  rather  increased  the  nourishing 
properties  of  the  leaves  treated.  The  leaves  thus  prepared  were 
placed  in  special  silos  with  false  bottoms,  from  which  the  water 
draining  from  the  mass  could  be  drawn  off.  It  was  proposed 
to  subsequently  distil  the  liquor  with  the  view  to  alcohol  pro- 
duction. The  heating  of  the  receptacle  could  be  done  upon  an 
open  fire  with  steam  coils,  etc.,  but  under  all  circumstances  the 
coils  used  should  be  copper  so  as  to  diminish  the  chances  of 
their  being  attacked  by  the  acid.  Later  modifications  of  this 
mode  resulted  in  using  wooden  vats  with  steam  coils.  The 
cooking  of  'beet  leaves  became  very  popular  in  certain  parts  of 
the  North  of  France  and  Belgium;  but  at  first  no  acid  was  used 
nor  were  such  leaves  siloed.  It  was  found  later  on,  when  intro- 
ducing the  Mehay  mode  upon  an  extended  scale,  that  great  ad- 
vantages were  derived  from  chopping  the  leaves  up  into  small 
pieces,  which  greatly  facilitated  the  action  of  the  acids  used, 
especially  in  cases  where  boiling  was  done  away  with.  It  was 
noticed  that  a  certain  interval  was  always  needed  by  the  cold 
water  mode  before  the  acid  had  completely  penetrated  the  entire 
texture  of  the  leaves  treated,  and  under  no  circumstances  should 
they  be  fed  to  cattle  before  assuming  the  same  appearance  as  to 
texture  as  leaves  that  had  been  boiled.  However,  by  the  cook- 
ing mode  two  men  can  handle  3  tons  of  leaves  per  diem,  which 
after  the  treatment  are  reduced  to  2.0  tons.  At  that  time  this 
preparation  cost,  including  fuel,  interest  on  investment,  etc., 
about  $1.20  per  ton  of  leaves,  and  was  worth,  it  was  then  de- 
clared, at  least  $4  per  ton. 

Beet  fcaf  drying,  Miiller  has  published  a  calculation  showing  that,  practically 
and  theoretically,  there  is  a  special  advantage  in  drying  beet 
leaves  with  a  view  to  their  transformation,  into  dry  fodder. 
Under  these  circumstances  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  combination 
of  superior  money  value  when  considered  on  a  basis  of  100  Ibs. 
of  material  fed.  It  is  not  found  desirable  to  dry  the  leaves  in 
any  special  appliance.  It  is  far  better  from  an  economical 


BUTTNER   AND    MEYER    DRYER.  105 

standpoint  to  avail  one's  self  of  the  fine  weather  and  sunshine 
that  frequently  occurs  in  the  autumn.  Under  these  conditions 
the  leaves  will  be  semi-dried.  An  example  may  be  cited  in 
which  the  tops  lost  80  per  cent,  of  their  weight  in  eight  days; 
the  leaves,  strictly  speaking,  lose  33  per  cent.  Rain  has 
not  as  unfavorable  an  effect  upon  the  desiccation  as  one  might 
suppose,  as  the  water  that  is  deposited  upon  the  leaves  in  the 
form  of  dew  readily  runs  off  and  is  rapidly  evaporated  when 
brought  into  contact  with  the  wind  or  any  mechanical  influence. 
During  ordinary  weather  the  leaves  lose  in  five  or  six  days  50 
per  cent,  of  their  moisture,  and  if  25  per  cent,  more  is  evapo- 
rated a  commodity  is  obtained  that  will  be  possessed  of  all  the 
requisites  for  easy  keeping. 

Air  desiccation  is  apparently  not  feasible  at  the  time  of  year 
when  the  sun  has  very  little  evaporating  force;  but  it  is  import- 
ant not  to  overlook  the  fact  that  there  are  many  other  industries 
that  have  the  same  difficulties  to  contend  with,  and  overcome 
them  successfully. 

Authorities  in  some  cases  have  suggested  that  the  "  Crummer  Crummer  dryer, 
dryer  "  may  possess  all  the  essential  qualifications.  The  leaves 
and  tops  undergo  a  sort  of  preliminary  chopping  and  pressing  in 
the  air,  so  as  to  withdraw  or  extract  an  additional  amount  of 
moisture;  and  this  operation  is  then  followed  by  the  action  of  a 
series  of  compressing  drums  in  which  circulates  steam  at  various 
pressures.  A  point  that  is  essential  to  bear  in  mind  is  that 
under  no  circumstance  should  the  pressure  of  steam  be  the  same 
in  each  drum,  but  on  the  contrary  it  is  desirable  to  gradually 
increase  it  until  reaching  the  limit  of  the  desiccation  in  view. 
The  dry  leaves  thus  obtained  have  excellent  keeping  qualities, 
will  not  mildew,  and  have  a  good  healthy  appearance. 

Buttner  and  Meyer  by  their  method  of  drying  resort  to  a  pre-    Buttner  and 
liminary  desiccation  by  the  elimination  of  a  large  proportion  of    Meyer  dryer, 
the  water  contained  in  the  cells  of  the  leaves.     They  cut  the 
leaves  into  strips  in  special  machines,  which  are  in  reality  not 
special,  as  they  are  simply  those  which  are  used  to  chop  beets. 
The  leaves  are  then  forced  through  a  spiral  where  they  are  sub- 
mitted to  the  action  of  steam.     Under  the  influence  of  this  in- 
creased temperature  the  cells  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  leaves 


106      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

burst  open  and  the  liquid  they  contain  is  liberated.  After  their 
passage  through  suitable  presses  the  water  percentage  has  been 
considerably  reduced,  and  some  authorities  maintain  that  this 
reduction  reaches  40  per  cent. 

The  leaves,  having  thus  undergone  this  preliminary  water- 
elimination,  are  dried  in  special  furnaces  of  the  Buttner  and 
Meyer  type,  which  will  be  described  later  on.  The  leaves  are 
then  perfectly  dry,  with  the  exception,  however,  of  a  few  small 
particles  that  are  rather  too  large  to  have  undergone  a  perfect 
desiccation  during  such  a  limited  period. 

In  order  to  prevent  these  slices  or  pieces  from  being  the 
source  of  a  future  infection  and  possible  complications  when 
considered  from  a  fermenting  standpoint  (we  refer  to  micro- 
organisms that  may  possibly  be  generated  and  which  would 
necessarily  result  in  the  putrefaction  of  the  material  under  con- 
sideration), the  particles  being  treated  pass  through  a  metallic 
gauze  acting  as  a  filtering  medium,  and  are  subsequently  run 
through  a  special  dryer. 

On  a  particular  farm  visited  by  the  writer,  where  the  Buttner 
and  Meyer  method  has  been  practically  introduced,  it  has  been 
possible  to  gather  per  hectare  3,500  kilograms  of  dried  leaves 
[about  3,000  Ibs.  per  acre],  which,  according  to  Maercker,  have 
a  commercial  value  of  9  marks  per  100  kilogs.  [say  $1  per  100 
Ibs.  or  $22  a  ton],  which  means  315  marks  to  the  hectare  [$31.50 
per  acre].  The  same  leaves  when  green  are  worth  only  60 
marks  [$6  per  acre] .  The  desiccation  costs  2  marks  per  100 
kilogs.  [24  cents  per  100  Ibs.],  which  in  other  words  means  70 
marks  for  the  total  dried  leaves  obtained  from  a  hectare  [$7  per 
acre].  The  carting  may  be  put  down  at  40  to  50  marks  per 
hectare  [$4  to  $5  per  acre] .  There  remains  consequently  a  net 
profit  of  315-180,  or  135  marks  per  hectare  [or  about  $13.50  per 
acre].  The  installation  of  a  plant  for  this  special  drying,  etc., 
is  not  to  be  altogether  recommended,  owing  to  the  cost  of  the 
transportation  from  the  beet  fields.  According  to  Runkhe,  the 
installation  necessary  for  125  hectares  [300  acres]  may  be  esti- 
mated at  20,000  marks  [$5,000]. 

Vibrans  declares  that  there  is  a  decided  objection  to  this 
method,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  preliminary  pressing  of  the 


WUSTERHAGEN    DRYER.  107 

leaves  in  the  Klusemann  apparatus  increases  the  dry  matter 
from  7  to  30  or  40  per  cent. ,  which  means  that  there  has  been 
pressed  out  75  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  total  liquid. 

Unfortunately  the  water  thus  separated  is  not  only  water,  but 
contains  also  a  considerable  percentage  of  dry  substances. 
Happily  these  losses  are  not  so  heavy  as  might  be  supposed,  as 
the  original  percentage  of  dry  matter  is  higher  than  7  per  cent. ; 
it  is  at  least  10  per  cent. ,  and  if  the  leaves  during  the  period 
they  remain  in  the  field  lose  a  certain  percentage  of  this  moist- 
ure, the  dry  substance  they  may  contain  is  not  less  than  15  per 
cent. ,  which  leaves  only  50  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  final  liquid  to 
be  eliminated. 

Wusterhagen  has  given  the  question  of  beet-leaf  keeping  and    Wusterhagcn 
drying  considerable  attention,  and  his  records  upon  the  subject       dryer, 
are  worth    noting.     He  declares   that  when   leaves   are  to  be 
fed  to  cattle  they  should  always  undergo  certain  preliminary 
preparations  with  a  view  to  diminishing  the  percentage  of  oxalic 
acid. 

Many  modes  for  beet- leaf  keeping  have  been  suggested  and 
experimented  with.  One  of  the  recent  German  patents  declares 
that  in  the  question  of  beet-leaf  keeping  there  are  five  facts  that 
must  be  taken  into  consideration:  1st.  Cleaning,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  getting  rid  of  the  sand,  dirt,  small  stones,  etc.  2d.  Re- 
duction of  the  toxic  percentage  of  oxalic  acid  of  the  leaves.  3d. 
Retaining  the  saccharine  substance  of  the  tops  and  leaves.  4th. 
Decrease  of  the  total  volume  of  the  mass.  5th.  Complete  and 
thorough  drying  with  a  view  to  perfect  keeping.  The  efforts 
of  M.  Wusterhagen  were  to  carry  out  these  essentials  to  the 
letter.  Upon  general  principles  we  may  admit  that  the  green 
leaves  retain  10  to  20  per  cent,  sand,  which  offers  some  difficulty 
in  complete  laboratory  analysis.  While  it  has  been  recom- 
mended to  wash  the  beet  leaves,  the  idea  does  not  appear  to 
have  much  practical  value.  The  sand  collects  in  the  tops  dur- 
ing the  washing  and  must  be  subsequently  removed,  which 
means,  in  practice,  an  additional  expense.  M.  Wusterhagen 
says  he  allows  the  leaves  to  undergo  a  preliminary  wilting  upon 
the  ground  after  the  beets  have  been  harvested,  and  this  drying 
is  continued  in  a  curreni  of  hot  air.  The  leaves  thus  dried  are 


108      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

placed  in  a  revolving  drum  in  which  the  sand,  etc. ,  is  separated 
through  a  well-arranged  sieve,  and  this  work  may  be  very  thor- 
oughly done  even  during  drying.  Attention  is  called  to  the  fact 
that  in  soil  or  sun-drying,  the  dew  and  rain  bring  about  a  slow 
decomposition  of  the  oxalic  acid.  This  fact  is  new  and  was 
unknown  several  years  since;  if  true,  it  has  a  more  than  second- 
ary importance.  At  first  sight,  it  would  seem  impossible  to 
decrease  the  oxalic  acid  and  at  the  same  time  retain  the  total 
sugar  in  the  tops  and  leaves,  as  oxalic  acid  needs  for  its  entire 
decomposition  a  high  temperature,  which  would  destroy  the 
sugar.  Just  why  during  sun-drying  the  oxalic  acid  should 
decrease  has  never  been  satisfactorily  explained.  Is  the  reduc- 
tion due  to  an  oxidation  or  the  action  of  some  micro-organism  ? 
The  drying  means  a  considerable  loss  of  oxalic  acid.  Before 
desiccation  the  leaves  contained  2. 39  per  cent,  of  this  acid  and 
after  the  hot-air  treatment  it  fell  to  0.60  per  cent.  The  average 
for  all  the  samples  examined  during  one  week  was  0.45  per 
cent.,  while  the  analysis  of  a  sample  of  the  previous  year  showed 
only  0.35  per  cent,  of  oxalic  acid.  Under  these  circumstances 
there  can  be  no  possible  objection  to  feeding  these  dried  leaves 
to  cattle  in  their  regular  daily  ration.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
the  green  leaves  are  fed  there  are  great  risks,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  the  acid  percentage  of  the  dry  matter  frequently 
reaches  5.9. 

When  leaves  are  submitted  to  a  very  high  temperature,  as  is 
suggested  by  Maercker,  there  is  always  some  danger  of  bring- 
ing about  an  alteration  in  the  sugar  which  is  not  desirable: 
hence  the  advisability  of  never  exceeding  a  certain  limit,  and 
this  is  controlled  by  a  current  of  cool  air  and  the  addition  of 
some  fresh  substance  to  the  mass.  Both  Drs.  Zelber  and 
Maercker  declared  that  by  the  Wusterhagen  mode  there  is  no 
decomposition  of  the  sugar.  The  operation  of  drying  offers 
certain  difficulties  in  view  of  the  fact  that  one  has  varying 
elements  to  contend  with,  and  these  are  all  of  very  different 
natures.  For  example,  the  tops  have  an  entirely  different 
structure  from  the  leaves,  and  in  the  latter  the  special  delicate 
botanical  formation  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  If  there 
existed  simply  a  regular,  uniform  heating,  one  portion  would 


WUSTERHAGEN*  DRYER.  109 

be  entirely  burned  while  the  other  would  be  only  semi-dried. 
Long  observations  had  demonstrated  that  the  best  mode  is  to 
begin  with  a  systematic  cleaning,  then  an  air  reduction  in  weight 
followed  by  drying.  The  tops  remain  upon  the  ground  for 
several  weeks;  then  they  are  put  into  small  piles  where  the 
wilting  continues,  after  which  they  are  taken  to  the  hot  air 
dryer.  By  this  treatment  the  oxalic  acid  is  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed, while  the  sugar  contained  in  the  tops  has  undergone 
very  little  transformation.  The  drying  of  the  leaves  and  tops 
is  then  continued  at  a  lower  temperature,  so  that  there  can  be 
no  possible  danger  of  caramelization,  a  special  system  for  regu- 
lating the  temperature  of  the  dryer  being  used.  The  reduction 
in  weight  of  the  tops  and  leaves  always  means  a  considerable 
loss  during  sifting  of  the  dust,  impurities,  etc.  At  the  start  88 
per  cent,  of  substance  to  be  dried  diminishes  at  least  20  to  30 
per  cent,  in  weight  during  the  air-drying  or  wilting.  The  arti- 
ficial drying  means  30  to  48  additional  percentage.  The  leaves 
finally  retain  about  15  per  cent,  moisture.  Beet  leaf  drying 
has  already  obtained  considerable  proportions. 

According  to  Petry  &  Kecking,  who  have  introduced  the 
Wusterhagen  mode  upon  several  farms,  these  dried  leaves  will 
keep  for  at  least  two  years  under  ordinary  conditions,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  they  show  certain  hygrometric  powers. 
A  sample  containing  20  per  cent,  of  water  did  not  mildew  even 
after  a  long  period  of  keeping.  They  declare  that  this  keeping 
power  is  due  to  their  sugar  percentage. 

Proebent's  experiments  in  beet*  leaf  drying  have  shown  that 
the  operation  costs  about  50  cents  for  220  Ibs.  dry  matter.  In 
Belgium  the  profits  are  about  one  cent  a  pound.  From  a 
hectare  (2.5  acres)  there  is  collected  about  3  tons  of  dry  sub- 
stance, which  is  worth  at  least  830  in  its  dried  state. 

Vibrans  cannot  understand  how  the  technical  authorities  can 
possibly  attempt  to  extract  the  water  from  a  substance  which 
contains  already  less  moisture  than  do  pressed  diffusion  cos- 
settes,  and  if  these  can  be  dried  under  remunerative  conditions 
certainly  beet  leaves  could  be  desiccated  under  very  much  better 
circumstances,  if,  instead  of  pressing  the  product,  some  practical 
method  was  devised  for  bringing  the  dryers  to  the  leaves  as 
found  upon  the  field. 


110      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

i  The  idea  does  not  seem  in  many  respects  to  be  practicable; 
it  is,  however,  very  advantageous  when  sugar  factories  cultivate 
the  beets  themselves.  Under  these  conditions  the  roots  are 
farmed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  factory;  but  when  it  comes  to  the 
transportation  of  leaves  for  a  distance  of  2J  miles  at  a  period 
when  all  means  of  traction  are  more  expensive,  such  a  system 
would  be  excessively  costly.  It  would  be  necessary  that  the 
plant  should  consist  of  an  apparatus  for  cutting  the  leaves,  for 
the  drying  in  a  special  furnace,  and  a  movable  engine  that  would 
carry  the  appliance  where  it  was  required.  The  combined 
machinery  should  be  placed  under  a  light  movable  roof. 

The  desiccation  of  leaves  has  the  great  advantage  of  doing 
away  with  the  moisture  that  may  have  been  produced  during 
siloing,  under  which  circumstances  they  would  more  surely  ap- 
proach the  feeding  value  of  hay.  Furthermore  the  product 
would  be  vastly  more  healthy  and  would  not  be  possessed  of 
any  of  the  laxative  properties  of  fresh  leaves.  Moreover  the 
amount  of  oxalic  acid  they  contain  is  considerably  reduced. 
Already  the  beet  leaves  that  have  remained  on  the  field  during 
an  interval  of  a  week  or  ten  days  after  the  harvesting  of  the 
beets,  lose  a  considerable  proportion  of  their  oxalic  acid.  This 
statement,  previously  mentioned,  is  absolutely  true.  Apparently 
there  has  been  produced  a  sort  of  fermentation  which  reduces 
the  oxalic  acid.  However,  this  decrease  may  be  the  outcome 
of  a  continuation  of  some  physiological  action  of  a  substance 
contained  in  the  leaves  after  they  are  separated  from  the  main 
body  of  the  root,  and  this  deduction  increases  during  desicca- 
tion. There  seems  to  be  every  reason  to  believe  that  there  is 
great  truth  in  this  assertion,  for  the  analysis,  as  given  by 
Vibrans  a  well-known  chemist,  substantiates  his  views.  The 
dry  leaves  contain  0.03  to  0.05  per  cent,  of  oxalic  acid,  and  15 
to  20  per  cent,  of  water,  5  per  cent,  albumen  and  12  per  cent, 
sugar.  Buttner  and  Meyer  allow  only  0.23  per  cent,  of  oxalic 
acid.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  true  that  in  their  method  there 
is  no  explanation  of  the  loss  of  oxalic  acid  during  the  pressing 
of  leaves  in  the  Klusemann  press. 

Beet  leaf         There  is  no  example  to  be  given  of  any  serious  complica- 
feeding.      tion  arising  from  the  special  beet  leaf  feeding.     It  is  well  to 


OBJECTIONS    TO    BEET-LEAF    FEEDING.  Ill 

remember  that  in  these  scientific  experiments  the  results  ob- 
tained show  data  that  can  be  absolutely  relied  upon,  and  those 
interested  in  cattle  feeding  can  adopt  the  given  principles  with- 
out the  slightest  hesitation. 

However,  in  the  early  experiments  that  were  made  in  these 
new  efforts  at  the  utilization  of  products  either  from  the  beet 
sugar  factory  direct,  or  from  the  residuum  of  factories,  there 
have  always  been  certain  unknown  factors  to  contend  with,  but 
as  matters  now  stand  and  as  investigations  have  been  made  by 
the  leading  experimental  stations  of  continental  Europe,  it  is 
not  to  be  presumed  that  any  practical  error  has  been  committed. 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  experiments  of  Priester  in 
the  "Milchzeitung,"  the  well-known  organ  of  Germany  de- 
voted to  this  specialty.  In  this  publication  it  is  declared  that 
when  cows  have  been  exclusively  fed  with  leaves  and  without  the 
intensive  additional  use  of  another  forage,  no  results  other  than 
those  which  have  been  extremely  satisfactory  have  ever  been  re- 
corded. The  quantity  of  milk  has  increased,  and  furthermore 
in  cases  of  working  oxen  the  amount  of  traction  obtained  after 
a  given  interval  has  been  quite  equal  to  that  which  has  hitherto 
been  realized  by  many  of  the  complicated  formulae  advanced  by 
well-known  specialists. 

The  introduction  of  beet  leaves  as  a  forage,  and  especially  Objections  to 
siloed  leaves,  has  met  with  endless  objections  among  farmers,  beet-leaf  feeding. 
It  has  always  been  declared  among  tillers  that  there  is  danger 
of  lowering  the  general  health  of  the  animals  by  excessive  beet- 
leaf  eating,  owing  to  the  purgative  effect  of  the  residuum.  This 
objection  is  in  a  measure  correct;  however,  at  the  present  day, 
these  objections  have,  without  doubt,  been  very  materially  over- 
come. To  reply  to  many  erroneous  assertions  about  beet  leaves 
in  cattle  feeding  would  be  a  waste  of  time;  suffice  it  to  say,  it 
is  much  to  be  regretted  that  several  agricultural  journals  of  the 
country  should  have  printed  articles  written  by  persons  who 
certainly  have  had  little  or  no  experience  in  the  subjects  they 
were  discussing.  "Beet  leaves  fill  up  cattle;  *  *  *  they  pro- 
duce a  bad  effect  upon  the  kidneys  owing  to  their  containing  an 
excess  of  alkalies,  etc.,  etc.,"  are  only  a  few  of  the  theories  ad- 
vanced. It  has  been  pointed  out  that  cows,  when  fed  with  beet 


112  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

leaves  during  the  period  of  gestation,  would  bring  dead  calves 
into  the  world,  and  their  milk  and  butter  would  be  of  an  inferior 
quality,  to  say  nothing  of  the  resulting  diarrhoea.  Practical 
experience  has  shown  the  absolute  absurdity  of  such  theories. 
However,  no  one  can  deny  that  during  the  first  stages  of  beet- 
leaf  feeding  there  is  always  certain  evidence  of  diarrhoea,  but 
this  laxation  of  the  intestinal  tubes  is  assuredly  only  temporary, 
lasting,  we  will  say,  a  few  weeks,  and  no  ill  effects  have  been 
known  to  follow,  provided  certain  precautionary  measures  are 
taken. 

It  is  claimed  that  soured  leaves  give  sour  milk,  but  the  fact 
of  the  matter  is  that  it  would  require  a  very  delicate  palate  to 
distinguish  between  the  milk  of  cows  fed  with  hay  and  that 
which  has  resulted  from  beet-leaf  feeding.  The  observations  of 
Von  Schmidt  are  not  very  reliable,  for  he  claims  that  such  milk 
is  in  no  way  suited  for  the  manufacture  of  cheese.  It  has  been 
noticed  upon  several  occasions  that  butter  produced  from  milk 
obtained  from  cows  fed  on  beet  leaves  is  hard,  but  even  if  such 
be  the  case  this  difficulty  may  be  readily  overcome.  It  is 
sufficient  to  give  to  the  cow  or  live  stock  being  fed  a  certain 
amount  of  oil  cake  in  order  to  reduce  the  butter  to  any  condi- 
tion of  softness  that  the  locality  may  call  for.  It  is,  how- 
ever, recommended  that,  when  one  wishes  to  give  to  live  stock 
turnip  cake,  the  quamtity  introduced  into  the  ration  should  not 
exceed  one  kilogram  per  diem  if  it  is  desirable  that  the  butter 
shall  not  have  imparted  to  it  a  turnip  flavor.  The  fault  found 
by  Grouven  with  beet-leaf  feeding  is  that  this  residuum  does 
not  contain  sufficient  phosphoric  acid.  Such  assertions  do  not 
appear  to  be  endorsed  by  modern  science,  as  Stoklasa  has  shown 
that  a  considerable  quantity  of  this  chemical  is  formed  in  the 
leaves  during  their  early  development.  However,  very  little  is 
shown  to  exist,  and  oil  cake  had  better  be  added. 

Oxalic  acid—  It  has  further  been  pointed  out  that  beet  leaves  are  actually 
its  influence,  possessed  of  certain  toxic  influences  due  to  the  oxalic  acid  they 
contain.  Before  refuting  such  assertions  it  is  interesting  to  call 
attention  to  Hertzfeld's  experiments,  which  demonstrate  that 
oxalic  acid,  far  from  being  the  result  of  the  decomposition  of 
the  leaves,  in  reality  disappears  in  notable  proportions  during 


CONCLUSIONS    RESPECTING    BEET-LEAF    FEEDING.         113 

the  siloing,  owing  to  the  action  of  a  certain  mushroom  which, 
according  to  Keller,  decomposes  the  oxalates  during  their  keep- 
ing. Zuntz  has  demonstrated  by  his  experiments  that  oxalic 
acid  has  without  doubt  a  toxic  action;  oxalates,  on  the  con- 
trary, possess  this  action  to  a  very  much  less  extent.  On  the 
other  hand,  beet  leaves  that  contain  oxalic  acid  in  the  propor- 
tion from  5  per  cent,  to  10  per  cent,  of  their  dry  substances, 
contain  it  mainly  in  the  form  of  oxalate  of  lime,  which  is  not 
dissolved  in  the  first  stomach  of  ruminants,  nor  in  the  lower 
portion  of  the  intestinal  canal.  However,  it  may  be  digested  in 
the  rennet,  and  if  a  certain  amount  of  lime  is  present  there  can 
be  no  possible  danger  of  toxication.  It  is  proposed,  under  these 
circumstances,  to  give  at  the  same  time  with  a  regular  ration  of 
leaves,  0.05  to  1  per  cent,  of  lime  as  chalk,  carbonatation  scums 
or  in  some  other  form.  The  need  of  lime  is  not  urgent  during 
the  first  stages  of  digestion  as  the  oxalic  acid  is  neutralized  by 
the  lime  taken  from  the  bony  tissues  of  the  body. 

The  body  of  man,  and  also  that  of  animals,  has  the  peculiar 
property,  as  previously  pointed  out,  of  yielding  to  the  organism 
little  by  little  the  components  requisite  to  sustain  life  during 
periods  of  excessive  work  or  abnormal  strain.  This  expendi- 
ture or  absorption  of  lime,  according  to  Zuntz,  demonstrates 
that  it  is  impossible  to  feed  live  stock  indefinitely  with  green 
leaves  without  the  addition  of  this  calcic  salt,  as  there  would 
necessarily  follow  a  reduction  in  the  bony  tissues,  resulting  in 
dangers  of  a  very  serious  nature  as  far  as  the  health  of  the 
animals  being  fed  is  concerned. 

The  addition  of  lime  to  the  forage  in  the  form  of  chalk  or 
carbonatation  scums,  reduces  very  materially,  if  not  to  a  mini- 
mum, the  deleterious  actions  referred  to  above. 

Gaspari  arrives  at  the  same  conclusion  as  Zuntz  and  declares 
that  this  forage,  which  contains  only  a  small  quantity  of  oxalic 
acid,  far  from  being  deleterious,  plays  on  the  contrary  an  im- 
portant role  in  stimulating  the  appetite  of  the  animals  fed.  It 
is  further  recommended  by  this  authority  that  special  precau- 
tions, such  as  those  first  mentioned,  be  taken  with  the  view  of 
preventing  accidents  that  may  occur  through  this  mode  of 
feeding. 


114      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

Zuntz  has  made  a  series  of  experiments  on  sheep  and  has 
found  that  they  are  not  affected  by  oxalic  acid.  He  believes 
that  their  pouch  or  second  stomach  must  necessarily  contain  a 
substance  that  effects  a  fermentation  and  completely  destroys 
the  oxalic  acid  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  He  recom- 
mends that  animals  receive  increasing  quantities  of  this  forage, 
and  under  no  circumstances  should  the  maximum  be  reached 
at  the  early  stages  of  feeding.  This  idea  is  in  striking  accord 
with  all  accepted  rules  and  theories  of  stock  feeding  in  general, 
as  advanced  by  the  leading  authorities. 
Conclusions  re-  Under  all  circumstances,  as  is  generally  admitted  by  those 

^°  have  Siven  ^riec*  ^eaves  a  thorough  trial,  the  results 
obtained  with  them  are  superior  to  fresh  or  sour  leaves  from 
many  points  of  view,  not  only  as  regards  their  nutritive  equiva- 
lents, but  also  their  keeping  qualities. 

A  fact  never  to  be  forgotten  is  that  the  leaves  are  not  eaten 
by  cattle  with  avidity  at  first.  They  must  first  become  accus- 
tomed to  the  new  diet,  as  to  many  other  condiments.  However,  a 
change  occurs  after  a  few  days,  and  then  live  stock  in  general  ap- 
pear to  like  this  fodder  and  to  eat  the  same  with  an  unex- 
pected relish.  It  is  only  under  very  exceptional  circumstances 
that  a  cow,  or  whatever  animal  is  fed  upon  this  waste,  will 
refuse  it,  and  if  this  proves  to  be  the  case  one  may  be  assured 
that  there  is  some  organic  trouble  existing  and  that  the  animal 
is  not  in  its  normal  physical  condition,  and  should  be  medi- 
'cally  treated. 

In  Germany  excellent  results  have  been  obtained  when  feed- 
ing about  30  Ibs.  beet  leaves  per  diem  per  head.  As  this  has 
been  practiced  for  many  years,  it  seems  curious  that  a  practical 
farmer  should  not  discover  whether  the  fodder  he  used  was 
profitable  or  not.  Hundreds  of  other  examples  could  be  cited. 
A  fact  too  frequently  overlooked  is,  that  when  a  sudden  change 
of  diet  is  made  for  dairying  cows,  there  always  follows  a  de- 
crease in  milk  production,  and  it  remains  to  be  determined 
whether  this  is  due  to  the  fodder  or  to  the  new  "regimen." 

Sufficient  has  been  said  in  the  foregoing  to  point  to  a  ques- 
tion of  great  agricultural  importance  in  the  future  development 
of  the  beet-sugar  industry  in  the  United  States.  When  we  con- 


FEEDING    SEED    STALKS    AND    SEED.  115 

sider  that  the  weight  of  leaves  is  nearly  equal  to  one-half  the 
weight  of  the  beets,  it  is  easy  to  estimate  the  enormous  volume 
of  cheap  fodder  farmers  are  to  have  at  their  disposal. 

Corenwinder,  not  many  years  since,  demonstrated  that  a  lux-  Relation  of  beet 
uriant  foliage  always  indicated  a  high  sugar  percentage.    Accord-    to  leaf  com- 
ing to  Deherain,  beets  testing  16  per  cent,  sugar  will  have  leaves      position- 
weighing  60  Ibs.  per  100  Ibs.  roots,  while  leaves  from  roots  con- 
taining 11  per  cent,  sugar  would  not  weigh  30  Ibs. 

The  quality  of  the  beets  has  an  important  influence  on  the 
saline  composition  of  leaves;  the  richer  the  beet,  the  higher  the 
percentage  of  salts  in  leaves.  The  saline  elements  taken  from  the 
soil  and  contained  in  leaves  are  for  beets  testing  15  per  cent. 
sugar,  about  as  follows: 

Potassa  5.30  to  5.7,  soda  1.45  to  1.55,  lime  1.40  to  1.55, 
magnesia  1.18  to  1.30,  chlorin  1.44  to  1.65,  sulphuric  acid 
0.64  to  0.65,  silica  0.35  to  0.64,  phosphoric  acid  1.18  to  1.20, 
various  0.78  to  0.85,  in  a  total  of  14.  Strange  as  it  may  seem, 
these  show  14  Ibs.  of  important  substance,  taken  from  the  soil 
by  leaves,  for  every  100  Ibs.  sugar  contained  in  the  roots. 

Grouven  also  says  that  100  Ibs.  of  fermented  leaves  are  equal 
for  feeding  purposes  to  150  Ibs.  of  fresh  leaves,  and  equal  to 
about  20  Ibs.  of  the  very  best  fodder. 

Attention  should  be  called  to  some  experiments  in  which  cows 
were  fed  upon  beet  leaves  and  gave  milk,  from  24  Ibs.  of  which 
there  was  extracted  1  Ib.  butter.  With  the  same  cows,  but  with- 
out leaves,  28  Ibs.  of  milk  were  necessary  to  produce  1  Ib.  of  butter. 
This  would  show  beyond  cavil,  that  beet  leaves  are  favorable  to 
milk  production.  Wild's  experiments  demonstrate  that  very 
satisfactory  results  may  be  obtained  by  feeding  beet  leaves  and 
straw  to  sheep;  he  found  that  57  per  cent,  of  total  organic  sub- 
stances were  digested.  Maercker  made  the  following  experiment 
in  feeding  beet  leaves  and  necks  to  sheep.  There  were  two  series 
of  ten  animals  each,  one  series  receiving  50  kilos  of  beet  leaves 
and  the  other  40  kilos  of  residuum  cossettes,  to  which  was  added 
the  desired  percentage  of  nitric  elements,  etc.  From  a  money 
point  of  view,  the  results  obtained  were  in  favor  of  the  leaves. 
In  another  experiment  the  leaves  were  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
the  sheep,  and  the  ten  animals  ate  67.6  kilos,  their  health  not 


116      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

being  in  any  way  affected.  The  example  may  be  cited  of  a  Ger- 
man farmer  who  fed  his  milch  cows  very  extensively  with  beet 
leaves,  and  with  surprising  results,  for  the  flow  of  milk  increased 
and  the  quality  was  satisfactory,  containing  4  per  cent,  of  fatty 
substances.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  during  the  early  period  of 
feeding  there  is  always  a  diarrhoea,  which  lasts  for  about  three 
weeks,  and  the  animal  fed  has  a  very  debilitated  appearance; 
then  there  follows  a  reaction  for  the  better  and  the  fattening  is 
very  rapid.  Beeves  fed  for  two  to  three  months  on  beet  leaves 
and  tops  increased  considerably  in  weight.  Under  no  circum- 
stances should  leaves  be  fed  to  cattle  or  sheep  during  the  period 
of  gestation.  Working  oxen,  after  beet  harvesting,  prefer  beet 
leaves  and  tops  to  almost  any  other  kind  of  fodder.  Farmers 
who  have  the  slightest  apprehension  as  to  the  feeding  of  beet 
leaves  to  cattle  should  give  the  product  a  trial  in  combination 
with  chopped  straw,  etc. ,  to  which  may  also  be  added  certain  oil 
cakes.  If  the  ratio'n  consists  of  f  leaves  and  J  tops,  about  60 
Ibs.  may  be  fed  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight;  if  only  30  Ibs.  are 
fed,  then  it  is  desirable  to  add  hay,  straw  and  about  6  Ibs.  of  oil 
cake. 

As  a  ration  one  may  give  to  cattle  the  combination  proposed 
by  Grouven:  For  heavy  cattle  40  Ibs.  of  soured  leaves  and  the 
same  quantity  of  soured  cossettes,  3  Ibs.  of  colza  oil  cake  and 
6  Ibs.  of  hay. 

Money  value  of      When  one  discusses  the  money  value  of  beet  leaves  and  tops 
beet  leaves  and  from  a  feeding  standpoint  their  digestibility  must  be  taken  into 
account.     While  it  is  admitted  that  all  the  nutrients  these  con- 
tain are  digestible,  it  is  thought  desirable  to  deduct  20  per  cent, 
from  their  supposed  money  value. 

Upon  general  principles  it  may  be  admitted  that  the  tops  are 
twice  as  nourishing  as  the  leaves.  All  calculations  made  the 
tops  and  leaves  worth  in  Germany  about  8.25  cents  per  100  Ibs. 
or  $1.80  per  ton,  about  88  to  the  acre. 

In  order  to  show  the  economical  advantages  of  the  utilization 
of  beet  leaves  it  is  interesting  to  give  as  an  example  Germany, 
where  440,000  hectares,  1,100,000  acres,  of  beets  are  harvested, 
and  where  they  do  not  rely  upon  more  than  two  tons  of  dried 
leaves  per  hectare,  which  are  worth  80  marks  per  ton,  the  value 


FEEDING   SEED    STALKS    AND    SEED.  117 

considered  as  a  whole  reaching  seven  millions  of  marks  for  their 
sugar  campaign,  which  is  a  sum  not  to  be  ignored  by  any  one. 

The  experiments   made  upon  pigs  at   Gottingen,   with  the   Feeding  seed 
stalks  of  beet  seed,  showed  that  they  were  composed  of  only  a  stalks  and  seed, 
very  indefinite  nutritious   value.     The   experiments  made   at 
Halle-sur-Saale  experimental  station  demonstrated  that  this  re- 
siduum was  possessed  of  only  a  moderate  nourishing  value  and 
had  a  coefficiency  of  digestibility  of  only  64.02  per  cent.,  viz., 
about  equal  to  the  straw  of  cereals  in  general  and  of  rye  in  par- 
ticular.    Old  beet  seed,  which  for  special  reasons  cannot  be 
utilized,  may  be  ground  to  a  powder  and  advantageously  used 
for  fodder. 


PART  THIRD. 


residuum 
cossettes. 


Objection  to 
its  use. 


CHAPTER  I. 
Feeding  Fresh  and  Siloed  Sugar  Beet  Residuum. 

Early  apprecia-  FROM  the  very  origin  of  the  beet  sugar  industry  it  was  sug- 
tion  of  the  value  gested  that  residuum  from  the  beet  sugar  factories  should  be 
of  sugar  beet  uge(j  for  ca^je  feeding,  and  if  one  consults  the  work  of  Achard 
it  will  be  noticed  there  are  a  few  lines  respecting  this  subject, 
but  curious  to  say,  long  years  elapsed  before  the  question  was 
given  the  attention  it  deserved. 

The  fact  of  being  able  to  keep  the  residuum  cossettes  in  an 
excellent  condition  during  several  months  of  the  year,  at  a  period 
when  fodders  in  general  are  expensive,  was  a  most  important 
advantage  that  all  intelligent  farmers  appreciated. 

Many  objections  were  made  to  this  residuum  pulp  (as  it  was 
then  called),  but  the  arguments  used  were  certainly  errone- 
ous. Frick  relates  that  in  1850,  when  efforts  were  made  to 
arrange  a  fodder  out  of  pressed  pulp — the  residuum  of  hydraulic 
pressing,  which  was  then  in  vogue — the  same  objections  were 
maintained  everywhere;  for  example,  it  was  claimed  that  certain 
lice  were  often  found  in  the  stomach  of  animals  fed,  and  that 
they  had  no  other  origin  than  beet  pulps.  Later  on  similar 
difficulties  were  contended  with  when  endeavoring  to  arrange 
for  the  utilization  of  exhausted  diffusion  cossettes.  Some 
farmers  refused  to  recognize  that  the  residuum  contained  any 
nutrients  whatever,  for  at  that  time  it  was  agreed  that  all 
the  nourishing  constituents  of  the  products  had  been  removed, 
with  the  water  during  pressing. 

The  heavy  percentage  of  water  contained  in  the  residuum 
pulp,  when  diffusion  was  first  introduced,  was  another  argu- 
ment against  the  general  use  of  this  valuable  product.  It  was 
thought  that  the  health  of  the  animals  would  suffer. 

(118) 


IN    WHAT   DIFFUSION    CONSISTS.  119 

At  first  the  fact  was  apparently  ignored  that  the  general  fat- 
tening effect  upon  animals  of  beet  cossette  residuum  from  sugar 
factories,  unlike  the  mash  from  breweries,  was  not  to  bloat. 
Cattle  raisers,  however,  were  willing  to  give  the  product  a  fair 
trial,  and  from  that  time  forward  certain  encouraging  results 
were  obtained. 

It  was  noticed  that  pressed  cossettes  had  excellent  keeping 
qualities,  and  even  when  fed  in  considerable  quantities  produced 
little  or  no  diarrhoea,  and  in  this  manner  all  previous  adverse 
arguments  were  overcome. 

The  manner  or  the  condition  in  which  this  residuum  from  Manier  Of  Dsing: 
beets  was  fed  to  cows  always  depended  upon  the  existing 
condition  of  the  sugar  industry;  also  upon  the  various  phases 
and  processes  which  the  sugar  manufactory  underwent  at  differ- 
ent periods  of  its  development.  At  the  start  of  this  industry  it 
was  impossible  to  consider  or  to  urge  the  use  of  the  residuum  in 
any  shape  other  than  that  in  which  it  left  the  hydraulic 
presses.  Then  there  came  a  struggle  to  convince  farmers  of  the 
importance  of  combining  a  suitable  fodder  with  the  after-pro- 
ducts of  the  maceration  process,  and  at  last  there  was  no  longer 
a  question  of  this  mode.  This  was  soon  replaced  by  another 
method  known  as  diffusion,  which,  from  that  time  to  this,  has 
held  its  own.  Furthermore,  it  became  necessary  to  take  into 
consideration  other  very  complex  questions,  such  as  the  impos- 
sibility of  utilizing  the  enormous  quantities  of  this  feeding  stuff 
in  a  very  limited  time,  which  resulted  in  great  changes  in  the 
methods  of  keeping  the  same. 

At  the  present  day  no  other  question  is  discussed  than  that  of 
diffusion  cossettes.  For  the  benefit  of  those  who  may  not 
be  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  question,  a  few  preliminary  re- 
marks may  be  of  interest. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  rapid  and  complete  extraction  of  thein  what  diffosioit 
sugar  from  the  beets,  the  root  is  reduced  to  small  slices,  each      consists, 
having  a  section  closely  resembling  the  letter  V.     These  slices 
are  called  cossettes.     The  cossettes  upon  leaving  the  slicers  are 
received  in  receptacles  known  as  diffusers,  in  which  they  are  in 
contact  with  circulating  water.     Under  these  circumstances  an 
exchange  is  created  between  substances  dissolved  in  the  liquid 


120 


FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


The  main  object 

of  the 
manufacturer. 


Composition  of 
diffusion 
cossettes. 


contained  in  the  interior  of  the  beet  cells  and  those  of  the  ex- 
terior liquid.  These  transformations  take  place  through  the 
membranes  of  the  tissue,  and  there  is  a  real  phenomenon  of 
diffusion,  which  in  reality  explains  the  use  of  the  word.  The 
substances  dissolved  in  the"  liquid  of  the  cells  pass  through  the 
porous  membrane  with  different  velocities,  which  depend  upon 
their  condition  of  fluidity  and  the  complexity  of  their  molecules. 
The  saline  substances  are  most  rapidly  diffused  through  the 
tissues.  Then  there  follow  the  sugar,  amides,  and,  last  of  all, 
the  albuminoids,  and  the  cellulose  and  pectic  substances.  For- 
tunately these  transformations  are  in  direct  ratio  to  the  degree 
at  which  exhaustion  takes  place  in  the  diffusion  battery. 

The  main  object  the  sugar  manufacturer  has  in  view  is  to  ex- 
tract from  these  cossettes  as  much  sugar  as  possible  and  to  leave 
behind  a  maximum,  so  to  speak,  of  albuminoids  and  other  sub- 
stances which  are  likely  to  offer  difficulties  in  the  subsequent 
operations  of  the  various  phases  of  sugar  extraction.  These 
transformations  will  end  at  a  certain  point  and  the  exhausted 
cossettes  will  ultimately  consist  of  a  residuum  product  that  will 
be  very  valuable  for  cattle  feeding. 

As  all  the  substances  dissolved  in  the  liquid  of  the  cells  and 
the  order  in  which  they  diffuse  are  known,  we  are  able  to  ap- 
proximate, with  a  considerable  degree  of  accuracy,  the  composi- 
tion of  the  final  exhausted  cossettes.  They  are  poor  in  sugar 
and  relatively  rich  in  albuminoids  and  pectic  substances.  The 
salts  have  also  been  eliminated  to  a  considerable  extent.  This 
product  as  it  leaves  the  diffusion  batteries  has  about  the  follow- 
ing composition: 

COMPOSITION  OF  COSSETTES  AS  THEY  LEAVE  THE  DIFFUSION 

BATTERY. 


SUBSTANCES.  * 

Stammer's 
experiments. 

Briem's 
experiments. 

Water  

Per  cent. 
05  45 

Per  cent. 
Q4  0 

3  39 

1  4 

0  36 

0  *> 

Ash  

0  30 

0  4 

0  57 

3  6 

0  1 

DRIPPING   AND    STRAINING.  121 

It  becomes  very  evident  that  one  cannot  consider  these  figures 
as  being  possessed  of  absolute  value.  They  evidently  vary  with 
the  original  composition  of  the  beets  and  their  physiological  con- 
dition, which  has  previously  allowed  diffusion  to  take  place 
more  or  less  rapidly,  thereby  permitting  the  dissolved  substances 
contained  in  the  cellular  tissues  to  pass  through  the  outer  walls 
at  a  more  or  less  rapid  rate. 

The  composition  furthermore  depends  upon  the  method  of  s°9ar  left  jn 
manufacture,  the  process  of  diffusion  and  the  degree  of  exhaust- 
ion  to  which  the  beets  have  been  submitted  in  the  diffusion 
battery.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  there  are  many  sugar  factories 
which  allow  0.8  per  cent,  of  sugar  to  remain  in  the  residuum, 
whilst  at  other  factories  the  percentage  is  0.15  per  cent. 
Degner  urges  that  there  be  left  a  few  hundredths  per  cent,  of 
sugar. 

What  strikes  one  especially  in  these  data  is  the  enormous  Excess  of  water, 
quantity  of  water  that  remains  in  the  residuum,  and  every 
effort  should  be  made  to  reduce  this  to  a  minimum  in  all  cases. 
It  stands  to  reason  that  such  an  excess  would  be  deleterious 
to  the  general  health  of  the  animals  to  which  it  might  be  fed. 
The  methods  proposed  to  reduce  this  water  percentage  are  very 
different  and  depend  essentially  upon  the  various  factories 
where  they  have  been  introduced,  so  that  we  cannot  at  present 
enumerate  them  in  detail.  It  is  customary  to  resort  to  a  me- 
chanical method  which  reduces  this  water  at  least  50  per  cent. 

The  desirability  of  eliminating  the  water  of  diffusion  pulps  is 
an  open  question.  When  it  is  to  be  consumed  near  the  beet- 
sugar  factory,  the  product  may  be  thrown  into  silos  upon  leav- 
ing the  battery;  the  water  runs  off  by  natural  pressure  of  the 
mass.  This  plan  would  not  be  practicable,  however,  when 
pulps  are  to  be  carried  to  distant  farms;  hence,  upon  general 
principles,  we  may  admit  that  a  reasonable  pressure  is  desirable. 

Some  authorities  urge  that  such  a  reduction  is  unnecessary;    Dripping  and 
we,  however,  are  in  favor  of  resorting  to  considerable  pressure,     straining. 
The  ordinary  method  of  straining  the  cossettes  and  allowing  the 
water  to  drip  off,  so  to  speak,  gives  only  fairly  satisfactory  re- 
sults.    Some  allow  the  water  to  drain  off  upon  inclined  planes; 
the  semi-strained  mass  is  then  laid  on  wagons,  where  the  drip- 


122      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

ping  continues.  Under  these  circumstances  60  per  cent,  of  the 
water  of  the  cossettes  is  separated,  which  is  a  fraction  more  than 
that  which  can  be  removed  by  mechanical  pressing.  According 
to  Wicke  the  residuum  thus  obtained  contains  8.5  per  cent,  of 
dry  substances.  On  the  other  hand,  Bodenbender,  who  has  also 
made  some  experiments  in  endeavoring  to  drain  this  water  from 
the  product,  has  obtained  strained  cossettes  containing  85  per 
cent,  water.  In  these  same  pulps  the  water  is  reduced  to  50 
per  cent,  after  siloing,  which  would  tend  to  confirm  the  argu- 
ment of  Schotter,  who  declared  that  this  pressing  was  not  nec- 
essary when  the  residuum  was  not  to  be  kept  for  more  than 
eight  months.  He  claimed  that  after  this  time,  pressed  or  not 
pressed,  the  residuum  always  had  the  same  composition. 
Cossette  presses.  The  straining  method  has  very  little  practical  value  for  large 
factories,  and  it  is  now  customary  to  submit  the  cossettes  upon 
leaving  the  battery  to  considerable  mechanical  pressure.  To 
accomplish  this  an  almost  unlimited  number  of  cossette  presses 
has  been  invented,  but  the  results  obtained  with  each  of  these 
are  approximately  the  same. 

When  first  introduced  they  gave  a  residuum  containing  9  per 
cent,  of  dry  substances.  Little  by  little  the  improvements  re- 
sulted in  an  increase  in  this  percentage,  owing  to  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  water  being  expressed.  As  a  result  the  dry  matter 
remaining  in  the  best  known  apparatus  is  15  per  cent.,  and  it 
must  be  understood,  too,  that  this  is  by  no  means  the  limit  that 
such  machines  may  attain. 

Excessive  There  are,  however,  certain  obstacles  to  be  overcome,  which 
ure<  in  a  measure  prevent  the  progress  that  one  might  expect.  Ex- 
cessive pressure  would  reduce  the  cossettes  to  a  paste,  and  this 
would  be  objectionable,  as  one  looks  for  a  certain  dry  pulveru- 
lent condition  of  the  product  ultimately  desired,  which  consist- 
ency the  cossettes  generally  possess  after  leaving  the  typical 
presses  and  in  which  form  the  product  may  be  easily  handled. 
Furthermore,  this  paste  product  would  pass  through  the  per- 
forated iron  filtering  surfaces  of  the  presses,  and  would,  under 
such  circumstances,  obstruct  their  proper  working.  An  exces- 
sive pressure  would  also  decrease  the  percentage  of  nutritive 
elements,  as  some  would  be  carried  out  with  the  sweet  water  es- 
caping when  the  sides  of  the  beet  cells  are  broken  open. 


LOSSES    DURING    PRESSING.  123 

According  to  Bartz,  one  loses  about  0.28  per  cent,  of  the  pro-  losses  during 
teid  substances  passing  out  in  the  sweet  water  of  the  cossette     pressing, 
presses,   when  one  obtains  for   the  total  weight  of  the  beets 
worked  50  per  cent,   of  pressed  cossettes,  which  is  about  an 
average. 

Maercker,  however,  declares  that  this  loss  is  very  much  less. 
He  has  pressed  the  cossettes  so  that  they  are  reduced  to  18.41 
per  cent,  of  their  original  weight  and,  notwithstanding  this  ex- 
cessive pressure,  there  does  not  remain  in  the  sweet  water  run- 
ning off  more  than  3.35  per  cent,  of  the  total  dry  substances. 

On  the  other  hand,  Stammer  declares  that  this  loss  is  very 
much  greater,  even  when  submitted  to  less  pressure,  and  that 
the  weight  of  cossettes  is  reduced  to  38  per  cent,  with  a  conse- 
quent loss  of  5.5  per  cent,  of  dry  substances  in  the  sweet  water 
forced  out  from  the  residuum. 

The  essential  reason  for  this  diversity  of  data  may  be  ex- 
plained by  the  composition  of  the  cossettes  submitted  to  pres- 
sure. The  more  complete  their  exhaustion  during  diffusion 
the  less  will  be  the  loss  of  dry  substance  during  subsequent 
preparing. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  the  experiments  of  Stammer, 
it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  loss  of  saline  substances  in 
the  sweet  water  is  32  per  cent.,  while  for  albumen  and  extract- 
ible  substances  the  loss  is  only  about  12  per  cent,  of  the  total 
original  quantity. 

This  same  authority  declares  that  the  actual  loss  of  nitro- 
genous substances  during  preparation  was  not  more  than  0.03 
to  0.04  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  beets  handled;  further- 
more, that  before  preparing,  there  was  7.4  per  cent,  albumen 
in  100  parts  dry  matter  contained  in  the  cossettes,  and  after- 
wards the  percentage  was  reduced  to  6.56  per  cent. 

Classen  has  also  found  that  this  loss  is  considerable.  He  has 
pointed  out  that  even  with  a  slight  pressure  the  losses  of  nitro- 
genous substances  reach  7  per  cent.,  and  the  non-nitrogenous 
9  per  cent.  On  the  other  hand,  by  excessive  pressure,  the  loss 
is  10  per  cent,  of  nitrogenous,  and  15.04  of  the  non-nitrogenous 
substances.  He,  therefore,  justly  finds  that  these  are  no  longer 
insignificant  quantities  that  may  be  overlooked.  Happily,  the 


124 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


average  for  the  general  work  always  results  in  certain  com- 
pensations for  these  losses. 

Friihling  and  Schultz  have  obtained  the  following  results  by 
pressing  in  a  Bergreen  apparatus:  In  the  pressed  cossettes  there 
was  12  per  cent,  dry  substance,  and  0.66  per  cent,  in  the  sweet 
water,  of  which  0.23  per  cent,  was  ash,  and  0.16  per  cent, 
proteid  substances.  Below  is  given  the  analysis  of  the  resi- 
duum before  and  after  preparing: 

ANALYSIS  OF  BEET  KESIDUUM  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  .PREPARATION. 


Substances. 

Before  preparing. 

After  preparing. 

Water  

Per  cent. 
94  0 

Per  cent. 

CQ  Q 

Ash  -  

0  4 

0  fi 

0  5 

0  Q 

1  4 

2  4 

Q  A 

fi  1 

0  1 

09 

Digestible. 
Albuminoids  and  amides  

0  3 

0  6 

3  0 

5  1 

Fibre  

1  2 

2  0 

0  1 

0  2 

An  examination  of  these  data  shows  beyond  cavil  the  advan- 
tage of  pressing. 

The  presses  now  generally  used  are  of  the  Klusemann  or  the 
Selwig  and  Lange  types,  the  Klusemann  press  being  the  out- 
come of  Schlickeysen's  suggestion. 

Klusemann  A  side  view  and  section  of  one  of  these  presses  is  shown  in 
press.  -pig.  3;  in  many  respects  it  is  one  of  the  best  known.  They 
may  be  seen  in  operation  in  most  beet-sugar  factories.  As  a 
general  thing,  they  give  entire  satisfaction.  If  this  machine 
does  not  extract  the  fluid  as  fully  as  the  hydraulic  press,  it 
does,  working  continuously,  deliver  the  pressed  mass  containing 
12  to  14  per  cent,  of  dry  substance,  almost  equal  in  value  for 
cattle-fodder  to  ordinary  beets,  and  also  valuable  as  a  fertilizer. 
The  idea  of  Klusemann' s  press  evidently  came  from  the  clay- 
mixing  machine,  which  has  been  used  with  so  much  success  for 


KLUSEMAXN    PRESS. 


125 


mixing  pressed  clay  with  water.  Here,  as  in  the  clay-mixer, 
the  mass  is  worked  by  knives  and  screw-formed  cutters,  and  is, 
at  the  same  time,  forced  through  a  very  contracted  opening. 


FIG.  3. 


Side  View  and  Section  of  Klusemann  Press. 

In  the  Klusemann  press  this  is  effected  by  a  perforated  cone 
L.  which  works  in  a  perforated  cylinder,  and  is  furnished  with 
iron  or  steel  blades  placed  in  screw  form.  These  blades  seize 
and  force  down  the  cossettes  which  are  fed  in  at  the  top;  and  as 
the  cone  expands  at  the  bottom,  and  the  cylinder  is  of  e'qual 
diameter  throughout,  it  is  evident  that  a  strong  pressure  must 
be  given  to  the  cossettes  as  they  approach  the  contracted  open- 
ing between  the  cone  and  cylinder  at  the  bottom. 


126  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

This  press,  as  shown,  is  fed  with  cossettes,  which,  after  leav- 
ing the  elevator  #,  fall  into  the  hopper  K.  The  cone  L  with 
its  flanges  then  carries  the  mass  down,  pressing  it  against  the 
circumference  d  of  the  cylinder.  As  already  stated,  the  pressure 
increases  as  the  mass  is  forced  downward,  and  at  the  point  of 
greatest  pressure  this  escapes,  H  having  given  out  fully  half  its 
liquid — a  portion  entering  the  hollow  cone  through  the  perfora- 
tions therein,  and  escaping  at  g,  and  the  remainder  passing 
through  the  perforated  cylinder  c  into  the  outside  case  and 
escaping  at  k. 

The  speed  must  be  so  regulated  that  the  elevator  will  bring 
just  enough  material  to  keep  the  hopper  ^constantly  full;  and 
it  is  thought  desirable,  when  the  cossettes  are  not  in  suffi- 
cient volume  to  fill  the  same,  to  stop  the  machine,  as  otherwise 
the  results  expected  will  not  be  obtained.  The  machine 
should  always  be  started  slowly  at  first,  and  when  entirely 
filled,  run  at  a  regular  rate  of  50  revolutions  per  minute, 
arranging  the  elevator  to  suit.  The  motion  is  given  by  a  pulley 
P  carrying  a  pinion  M  working  in  the  cog-wheel  Z),  which  is 
keyed  on  a  horizontal  shaft  E,  the  latter  having  also  a  beveled 
pinion  F  which  works  into  a  beveled  cog-wheel  C  fastened  on 
the  prolongation  of  the  upper  axis  of  the  cone,  just  above  the 
box  in  which  the  axis  turns.  The  lower  axis  is  hollow  to 
allow  the  liquid  inside  the  cone  to  escape,  and  this  axis  works 
in  an  iron  box  provided  with  strong  set-screws  h  and  h'  on  the 
outside,  by  which  the  box  can  be  raised  or  lowered,  to  lessen  or 
increase  the  size  of  the  opening  of  delivery  and  the  consequent 
pressure  as  may  be  desired. 

It  is  not  always  possible  to  convey  the  cossettes  by  a  mov- 
ing apron  direct  from  the  bottom  of  the  diffusion  battery  to 
the  hopper  K.  But  frequently  it  is  emptied  in  any  part  of 
the  building,  and  the  refuse  conveyed  by  an  Archimedean 
screw  into  the  presses.  One  advantage  of  this  press  is,  that  it 
requires  no  care  and  little  or  no  attention;  but  what  is  to  be  re- 
gretted is  that  the  pulp  has  not  the  fresh  appearance  it  had 
prior  to  the  pressing.  Fifty  tons  of  cossettes  may  be  worked  in 
twenty-four  hours  through  one  press  of  this  description.  This 
amount  may  be  increased  by  increasing  the  diameter  of  the 


SELWIG    AND    LANGE    PRESS. 


127 


apparatus.     The  force  required  is  said  to  be  about  one  and  one- 
half  horse-power. 

Modifications  have  been. made  by  Bendel  and  Bergreen,  also 
by  Buttner  and  Meyer,  but  the  general  principle  remains  the 
same. 

FIG.  4. 


Vertical  Section— Selwig  and  Lange  Cone  Pulp  Press. 


The  Selwig  and  Lange  presses  work  upon  an  entirely  differ- 
ent principle.     This  press,  which  is  shown  in  Figs.  4  and  5  in  Selwig  &  Lange 
two  sections,  presses  the  cossettes  in  the  following  manner:  press. 

The  hopper  E  receives  the  cossettes,  which  fall  at  a,  between 


128    •  FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

cast-iron  jaws,  covered  with  perforated  tin;  these  are  placed  ob- 
liquely to  one  another,  and  revolve  upon  the  circumference  of  a 
large  hollow  cylinder  made  of  two  conical  parts.  The  move- 
ment is  very  slow,  and  is  the  same  for  both  disks.  It  de- 
pends upon  the  velocity  of  the  driving  pulley,  upon  the  axis  of 

FIG.  5. 


Transverse  Section—  Selwig  and  Lange  Cone  Pulp  Press. 

which  are  two  pinions  that  gear  with  large  cog-wheels,  these 
communicating  the  movement  to  the  exterior  circumference  of 
the  press.  But  as  at  a,  the  distance  between  the  surfaces  of  the 


SELWIG    AND    LANGE    PRESS. 


129 


FIG.  6. 


disks  is  the  greatest,  and  at  a  the  least,  the  cossettes  reach  a  con- 
tracted wedge-shaped  chamber  whose  walls  continually  move 
towards  the  smallest  space,  and  are  carried  around  by  the  fric- 
tion and  rotation  of  the  disks.  As  the  latter  gradually  approach 
the  narrowest  portion  of  the  space  a,  the  narrowing  disks  exert 
a  most  powerful  pressure  on  the  cossettes,  while  the  liquid  con- 
tained in  the  latter  passes  through  the  perforated  surfaces  of  the 
pressing  disks.  The  pressed  cossettes,  passing  the  narrowest 
portion  a — after  which  the  distance  between  the  disk-surfaces 
again  widens — are  forced  by  the  following  mass  against  the  fast 
scraper  F  out  through  the  opening  M  in  the  jacket,  and  form  a 
tolerably  consistent  mass.  The  pressed-out  water  flows  through 
larger  openings  in  the  jacket,  into  a  drain  H. 

The  degree  of  pressure  on  the  cossette,  which  is  in  proportion 
to  the  distances  between  the  disk-surfaces  a,,  a,  can  be  altered 
by  altering  the  press  disks  A,  At, 
which  can  be  moved  on  the  axis 
C  C,  by  set-screws  provided  for 
that  purpose. 

The  cone  cossette  press  can  be 
placed  either  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  or  over  chambers  which 
can  be  used  for  other  purposes, 
provided  the  liquid  can  be  carried 
off  properly,  since  the  machine 
has  no  separated  parts,  and  the 
pressed  cossettes  fall  from  it  at 
the  height  of  one  metre,  so  that  a 
transporter  can  be  run  under  to  be 
filled,  and  carry  the  cossettes  to 
another  place. 

In  most  cases  it  would  be  best, 
especially  if  Klusemann's  press  is 
to  be  run  with  it,  to  arrange  this 
press  directly  under  the  cossette 
elevator,  in  the  story  over  the 
cossette  storage  room,  as  shown  in 

the  accompanying  small  cut.     When  there  is  sufficient  height 
9 


General  Arrangement  of  Cone 
fress. 


130  FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

for  the  elevator  above,  two  presses  can  be  thus  conveniently 
located. 

In  new  buildings,  or  when  altering  buildings,  it  is  recom- 
mended to  place  the  press  in  the  factory,  and  not  in  a  separate 
building,  which  is  usually  colder,  since  experience  proves  that 
the  cossettes  can  be  pressed  to  much  greater  advantage  in  a 
warm  than  in  a  cold  place.  In  such  a  case  the  pressed  cossettes 
can  be  carried  by  a  wheeled  transporter,  an  endless  screw,  a  link 
belt,  or  some  other  arrangement  into  the  cossette  store-room, 
and  the  building  need  not  be  more  than  two  stories. 

The  press  is  driven  by  fast  and  loose  pulleys  on  the  shaft  Z, 
turning  a  pinion  which  works  into  the  cog-wheel  K.  As  soon  as 
the  hopper^"  begins  to  get  empty,  the  press  can  be  put  to  work; 
for,  if  it  be  not  sufficiently  filled,'  the  pressing  will  not  be  so 
well  done.  It  is  important  that  all  the  shafts  and  the  cog- 
wheels be  kept  well  oiled  and  greased. 

The  construction  of  this  press  is  said  to  be  simple  and  very 
strong,  having  no  parts  which  are  easily  broken,  or  which  wear 
out  rapidly.  The  materials  used  are  the  best;  the  iron  press- 
rollers  D  D,  are  chilled  castings. 

The  working  of  these  presses  is  said  to  be  as  simple  as  their 
construction.  The  disks  squeeze  the  cossettes  with  a  direct 
pressure,  almost  at  right  angles.  Slipping  of  the  cossettes  upon 
them  does  not  occur,  and  therefore  there  is  no  tearing  or  de- 
stroying of  their  cells.  In  consequence  of  this  the  power  re- 
quired to  drive  these  presses  is  much  less — one-fifth  or  one- 
fourth  only  of  that  of  the  Klusemann  press  of  equal  capacity. 

Advantages  claimed  for  the  conical  cossette  press  are: 

1.  Extraordinarily  great  delivery,   with   excellent   pressing. 
Of  the  (3)  cone  presses  of  varying  dimensions,  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table,  No.  1  has  a  capacity  of  250,000  k.  daily;  No.  2  of 
190,000  k.,  and  No.  3  of  100,000  k. ;  and  the  work  is  equally  as 
good  as  can  be  obtained  on  an  average  from  the  Klusemann 
press. 

2.  Very  slight  power  required — only  one-third  to  one-half 
horse-power  per  100,000  k.  daily  of  beets  worked,  being  only 
twenty  to  twenty-five  per  cent,   of  the  power  needed  for  the 
Klusemann  press.     In  consequence,  100  tons  of  beet  cossettes  can 


BERGKEEX    PRESS.  131 

be  pressed  with  this  machine  daily.     The  economy  of  coal  is 
apparent. 

3.  Great  simplicity  of  construction,  and  entire  safety  in  run- 
ning. 

4.  Very  little  loss  of  time  by  stoppage  while  at  work. 

5.  Better  keeping  quality  of  the  -pressed  cossettes,  which  also 
are  not  cut  up  too  fine.     These  pressed  cossettes  are  said  to  keep 
much  better  in  consequence  thereof  in  the  silos,  as  is  proved  by 
experience. 

6.  Lower  price  of  these  machines  and  cheaper  setting,  com- 
pared with  other  presses  of  equal  capacity. 

DAILY  DELIVERY  OF  3  CONE  COSSETTE  PRESSES  OF  VARYING  DIMENSIONS. 


Dimensions,  etc. 

No.  1. 

No.  H.                         No.  S. 

Delivery  per  day  of  worked 
beets       ....            

225  t.  to  250  t. 
1.800  m.  (70".81) 

0.60-0.70 
785mm. 
155  mm.   , 

67-78 
7000  k.  (15,400  Ibs.) 

150  t  to  165  t. 
1.450m.  (57".04) 

0.85-1.0 
940mm. 
155  mm. 

33-39 
5200  k.  (11,440  Ibs.) 

100  t.  to  110  t. 
1.200  m.  (40".15) 

1.1-1.3 
785mm. 
130  mm. 

41-49 
3600  k.  (7,920  Ibs.) 

Diameter  of  press  disks  
Number   of    revolutions    of 
same  per  minute  — 
Diameter  of  driving  pulleys. 
Dreadth  of  driving  pulleys. 
Number  of  revolutions  pul- 
leys per  minute  

For  the  pressing  of  two  hundred  tons  of  diffusion  cossettes  in 
twenty-four  hours,  about  two  horse-power  will  be  required. 

The  Bergreen  press  of  the  old  and  new  types  is  shown  Bergreen  press, 
in  Figs.  7  and  8.  Its  working  is  based  on  the  same 
principle  as  that  of  the  Klusemann  apparatus.  It  consists 
mainly  of  two  cones,  A  and  B,  of  which  the  interior  one, 
B,  is  perforated  and  has  a  hollow  lower  axis,  F,  for  sup- 
port and  the  exit  of  the  expressed  juice.  Both  cones  are 
provided  with  iron  screw-formed  blades  of  which  those  on  the 
upper  half  of  the  outer  cone,  J,  form  segments  of  a  screw, 
while  the  lower  portion  of  the  screw  blade  is  continuous,  and 
almost  touches  the  inner  circumference  of  the  perforated 
cylinder,  D.  In  the  upper  portion  of  this  outer  cone  the 
separate  blades,  e  e  and//,  run  in  spiral  form,  but  in  opposite 
directions.  The  blades,  e  e,  form  a  low,  sloping  screw,  while 
those  of  //  are  steep.  The  former  being  also  broader,  spread 


132 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


and  mix  the  mass,  while  the  steep  winding  of  the  spiral,  //, 

FIG.  7. 


Bergreen  Cassette  Press  (Old  Type). 

forces    the    mass    downwards    with     pressure.     In   the   outer 


BERGREEN    COSSETTE    PRESS. 


133 


cylinder  the  blades,  e  and  /,  move  in  a  spiral  from  left  to  right, 
but  the  similar  blades  on  the  inner  cone  move  spirally  from 
right  to  left. 

FIG.  8. 


Bergreen  Costmtte  Press  (Hew  Type). 

As  the  two  cones  move  in  opposite  directions  this  arrange- 


134      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

ment  forces  the  cossettes  from  the  upper  broken  spiral  into  the 
lower  continuous  spiral.  The  motion  is  given  by  the  pulley, 
a',  on  whose  axis  a  pinion,  6,  works  into  a  large  cog-wheel,  bf. 
On  the  horizontal  axis,  K,  two  pinions  of  different  sizes  are 
placed  opposite  to  each  other,  the  smaller  of  which,  c,  gearing 
into  the  bevel  wheel,  c',  on  the  axis  of  the  inner  cone,  and  the 
larger  pinion,  d,  gearing  into  d ',  on  the  axis  of  the  outer  cone. 
It  is  plain,  therefore,  that  the  cones  will  revolve  in  opposite 
directions.  The  cones  are  slit  in  many  places,  as  shown  on  the 
broken  portion  of  B.  These  are  covered  with  finely  perforated 
tin,  so  that  the  sweet  water  may  run  off  easily  and  at  the  same 
time  be  freed  from  cossettes. 

There  is  a  man-hole  at  the  bottom  of  B  to  afford  access  to  the 
interior,  and  around  the  man-hole  is  a  rim  to  prevent  overflow 
of  the  expressed  water.  C  is. a  hopper,  and  Hi  are  three  iron 
bands  on  the  outside  of  cylinder,  Z),  to  strengthen  it  at  the 
point  of  greatest  pressure.  There  is  an  outer  casing,  £",  whence 
the  liquid  flows  through  GG  into  H.  From  the  inner 
cylinder  the  sweet  water  flows  into  some  exit  through  the 
hollow  axis,  which  rests  in  the  hollow  step,  F.  The  cost  of 
this  press  is  greater  than  the  Klusemann  apparatus.  During 
recent  years  another  press  of  the  Bergreen  model  has  come  into 
existence,  an  engraving  of  which  is  shown  herewith.  The 
outer  portion,  A,  of  the  old  model  is  done  away  with.  This 
apparatus  is  cheaper  and  works  very  satisfactorily. 

Lallouette  Another  mode  which  for  a  time  had  some  popularity,  is  the 
press.  Lallouette  press,  shown  in  Fig.  9,  which  is  not  without  interest 
as  it  has  been  used  subsequently  to  the  standard  Klusemann 
and  other  presses.  The  filling  may  be  done  with  a  pulp-pump,* 
and  15  tons  of  pulp  may  be  pressed  in  twenty-four  hours.  In 
France  this  press  was  not  only  used  for  the  refuse  beet  pulp,  but 
also  for  first  and  second  pressing  of  the  rasped  beets.  Mr. 
Lallouette' s  idea  was  to  diminish  the  water  in  excess  in  the 
diffusion  pulp,  so  that  the  latter  would  contain  no  more  of  it 
than  the  pressed  diffusion  cossettes.  His  experiments  consisted 

*  The  pulp-pump  is  of  curious  construction.  The  valves  must  be  necessarily 
made  large,  not  only  to  permit  the  passage  of  the  liquid,  but  also  of  substances 
in  suspension. 


LALLOUETTE    PRESS. 


135 


in  placing  a  small  quantity  of  the  pulp  in  the  press,  then  a 

FIG.  9. 


Z.alJouette  Press. 

layer  of  linen  cloths,  then  a  layer  of  pulp,  etc.,  alternately, 


136  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

until  full— the  capacity  being  250  k.  [550  Ibs.].  The  whole, 
after  being  pressed  from  seven  to  ten  minutes,  was  reduced  to 
170  k.  [375  Ibs.] ,  about  40  per  cent,  of  water  being  eliminated. 
These  several  presses  give  about  the  same  results:  that  is  to 
say,  they  give  50  per  cent,  in  weight  of  residuum  of  the  beets 
worked.  This  product  contains  on  an  average  from  12  to  14 
per  cent,  of  dry  matter.  As  was  before  mentioned,  numerous 
efforts  have  been  made  to  increase  this  dry  matter  percentage. 
The  machines  used  for  the  purpose  do  not  permit  one  to  go 
much  beyond  the  limits  named,  as  otherwise  there  would  be 
danger  of  clogging  the  mesh  of  the  perforated  filtering  iron. 
Care  needed  It  is  essential  to  see  that  these  presses  run  with  regu- 
during  pressing,  larity  and  to  keep  them  constantly  filled  with  cossettes  as  long 
as  possible.  As  long  as  they  are  full,  the  cossettes  are  submitted 
to  a  normal  pressure  against  the  sides  of  the  apparatus,  but  as 
soon  as  the  supply  of  the  residuum  decreases,  which  frequently 
occurs  during  an  irregular  working  and  the  subsequent  empty- 
ing of  the  diffusors,  the  residuum  is  not  pressed  and  it  leaves 
the  presses  in  a  moist  condition.-  Experience  shows  that  it  is 
preferable  to  supply  the  cossettes  to  one  press  after  another  and 
to  commence  with  the  central  one  of  the  series,  there  being  thus 
a  greater  chance  of  at  least  two  presses  working  continuously. 
Heat  facilitates  There  is  one  fact  not  to  be  overlooked,  and  that  is,  that  the 
pressing,  higher  the  temperature  of  diffusion  the  greater  will  be  the  ease 
with  which  the  water  can  be  expelled  from  the  residuum.  It  is 
impossible  in  the  operation  of  diffusion  to  go  beyond  a  certain 
temperature,  at  which  the  final  residuum  becomes  gelatinous 
and  bursts  open  under  the  slightest  pressure.  The  most  desir- 
able temperature  is  variable  and  depends  upon  the  tissues  of 
the  beet  being  worked,  but  upon  general  principles  it  may  be 
said  that  it  is  very  near  80  degrees  C. ,  at  which  temperature  the 
cells  reach  their  maximum  porosity  and  allow  their  liquid 
to  escape  freely. 

Modes  for  facili-      For  several  years  past  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  introduce 

tating  pressing,   the  residuum  into  the  cossette  presses  at  the  highest  possible 

temperature,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that,  in  many  instances, 

diffusion  is  conducted  with  hot  water.     Certain  manufacturers 

have  gone  so  far  as  to  mix  hot  water  with  the  exhausted  cos- 


LALLOUETTE    PRESS.  137 

settes  in  order  to  reheat  them,  while  in  other  cases  it  has  been 
customary  to  reheat  this  residuum  by  bringing  it  in  contact  with 
live  steam. 

Maercker  attempted  to  obtain  the  same  result,  not  by  heat 
but  by  chemical  reactions.  After  a  long  series  of  laboratory 
investigations  he  concluded  that  when  the  cossettes  were  mixed 
with  lime  or  alkaline  salts,  the  cellular  tissues  of  the  product 
became  very  much  more  porous.  The  most  efficacious  method 
is  the  least  expensive.  It  consists  in  submitting  the  cossettes 
to  the  action  of  0.5  per  cent,  of  lime,  using  it  in  the  form  of 
milk  of  lime.  The  receptacle  in  which  this  mixing  is  done  has  a 
suitably-arranged  agitator  which  produces  a  perfectly  homoge- 
neous mass.  This  operation  lasts  from  20  to  30  minutes,  and 
the  product  thus  obtained  gives  up  a  large  percentage  of  water 
under  the  slightest  pressure.  Some  investigators  who  have 
introduced  this  milk  of  lime  treatment  claim  that  the  percent- 
age of  dry  substances  in  the  final  pressed  product  reaches  nearly 
30  per  cent.  (?),  that  the  limed  cossettes  were  possessed  of  an 
agreeable  flavor,  etc. 

Siekel  also  recommends  this  mode  of  working,  but  under  no 
circumstances  should  the  residuum  be  allowed  to  be  in  contact 
with  the  lime  for  more  than  30  minutes,  as  otherwise  the 
physical  condition  of  the  product  would  be  altered,  and  it 
would  then,  in  a  measure,  be  worthless  for  the  purposes 
intended.  It  would  be  transformed  in  the  presses  into  a  com- 
pact mass,  which  it  would  be  impossible  to  compress  without  a 
breaking  of  the  press,  and  under  such  circumstances  it  would 
become  necessary  to  cut  it  into  pieces  in  order  to  remove  it. 

Muller  proposes  the  washing  of  the  cossettes  in  lime  water 
before  pressing.  Under  this  treatment  the  residuum  increases 
in  value  as  a  fodder,  and  the  lime  will  constitute  later  on  an 
obstacle  to  the  excessive  fermentation  in  silos,  which  is  always 
to  be  dreaded. 

The  theory  of  the  Manoury  method  is  based  upon  the 
simultaneous  action  of  heat  and  a  suitable  chemical,  which 
coagulates  the  albuminoids  in  the  tissues  of  the  beet.  Its 
application  to  diffusion  consists  in  adding  lime  to  fresh  beet 
cossettes  during  the  diffusion  at  70°  C. ,  allowing  the  contact  to 


138  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

last  for  at  least  20  minutes.  The  cossettes  subsequently  give 
excellent  results  by  pressure,  and  their  weight  may  be  reduced 
to  15  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  beet. 

The  mixing  of  the  lime  with  the  cossettes  may  be  done  in 
many  ways.  The  weak  juices  running  from  the  diffusion 
battery  are  used  again  instead  of  water  for  the  general  working 
of  the  battery.  The  advantages  of  such  practice  are  as  follows: 
1st.  Considerable  diminution  in  the  quantity  of  water  required 
for  diffusion.  2d.  The  saving  of  0.3  to  0.4  per  cent,  sugar, 
which  is  frequently  lost  in  the  refuse  water  and  cossettes.  It 
is  said  that  juices  extracted  by  this  method  are  at  least. as  sweet 
as  those  from  the  first  carbon atati on,  consequently  the  latter 
operation  may  be  effected  with  1  per  cent,  of  lime,  giving  a 
purity  equal  to  that  obtained  with  3  per  cent,  by  the  customary 
process.  It  is  estimated  that  by  an  additional  expense  of 
$1,600  there  would  result  an  advantage  of  $1.40  per  ton  of 
,  beets,  and  for  an  ordinary  campaign  a  saving  of  over  $12,000. 
These  figures,  if  correct,  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant 
their  careful  examination  by  every  beet-sugar  manufacturer. 

Bosse  urges  that  the  several  modes  mentioned  in  the  fore- 
going be  combined.  He  submits  the  residuunv  to  hot  water 
and  alkali  during  pressing,  and  re-heats  the  cossettes  on  leav- 
ing the  diffusors  in  a  large  receptacle  containing  ammoniacal 
water,  which  is  collected  during  the  evaporation  of  the  juice  in 
the  triple  effect. 

Scheermesser  uses  in  the  last  diffusor  of  a  diffusion  battery, 
water  that  is  saturated  with  anhydrous  sulphurous  acid. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  resulting  residuum  is  easily 
pressed,  and  the  albuminoids  are  coagulated  by  this  acid,  under 
which  conditions  they  will  be  retained  in  the  cossettes  that  are 
pressed,  and  will  not  pass  off  in  the  sweet  waters.  When  the 
product  is  dried  and  left  in  the  air  for  a  certain  time  the 
anhydrous  sulphuric  acid  seems  to  evaporate,  but  it  remains 
to  be  proved  whether  the  product  could  be  advantageously  fed 
t  to  cattle. 

Pulp  or  cossette     Most  farmers  in  continental  Europe,  when  contracting  to  grow 

contracts,    beets  for  the  sugar  factories,  stipulate  in  advance  that  they  must 

have  in  return  at  least  50  per  cent,  in  weight  of  the  beets  fur- 


VALUE    OF    SUGAR    BEET    COSSETTES.  139 

nished.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is  to  the  manufacturer's 
interest  to  have  the  largest  possible  quantity  of  residuum  c'os- 
settes.  Unfortunately,  very  dishonest  methods  are  frequently 
employed  to  obtain  the  same,  in  which  case  the  manufacturer 
has  no  special  advantage  in  submitting  the  cossettes  to  an  ex- 
cessive pressure. 

Furthermore,  it  would  be  to  the  interest  of  the  tiller  to  stipu- 
late in  his  contract  that  the  residuum  shall  contain  a  certain 
quantity  of  dry  matter.  If  this  is  less  than  8  per  cent,  the  pro- 
duct should  be  refused.  As  affairs  now  stand  the  farmer  fre- 
quently receives  water  instead  of  the  valuable  constituent  just 
mentioned,  and  can  derive  no  benefit  fro'm  it.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  the  water  has  not  been  removed  the  mass  of  cos- 
settes has  considerable  volume  and  the  cost  of  its  transportation 
is  considerably  higher  than  it  should  be.  Furthermore,  the 
nutrients  contained  in  the  product  are  frequently  so  diluted 
that  they  have  a  pernicious  effect  upon  the  health  of  the 
animals  being  fed. 

The  market  value  of  residuum  cossettes  from  sugar  factories  Value  of  sugar 
depends  upon  many  conditions;  their  composition,  the  manner  tot  cossettes. 
in  which  they  are  obtained,  the  abundance  of  other  crops  and 
distance  from  factory  to  farm.  In  most  European  countries 
contracts  are  made  between  farmer  and  manufacturer  for  beets 
at  84.00  per  ton,  the  farmer  reserving  the  privilege  of  purchas- 
ing the  residuum  pulp  at  81.00  to  $2.00  per  ton,  in  quantities 
corresponding  to  i  of  the  weight  of  beets  furnished.  When 
pulps  are  delivered  at  farms  allowance  is  made  for  such  trans- 
portation. Considerable  change  occurs  in  the  composition  of 
the  product  during  transit.  The  percentage  of  water  increases 
cost  for  example,  if  80  carts  are  required  to  carry  a  given  weight 
of  pulp  containing  80  per  cent,  water,  85  carts  would  be  neces- 
sary for  transportation  of  the  same  pulp  if  the  water  percentage 
had  been  85  per  cent. 

By  means  of  oxen  the  cost  of  transportation  of  pulp  to  a  farm 
at  average  distance  from  the  factory,  is  15  cents  per  ton.  This 
price  permits  keeping  oxen,  or  other  animals  used,  in  good  con- 
dition, and  in  a  few  years  pays  their  value.  Difficulties  con- 
stantly arise  between  manufacturer  and  farmer;  either  the  latter 


140  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

wants  more  than  his  contract  calls  for,  or  he  maintains  that  the 
refuse  is  inferior  in  quality  to  the  product  formerly  used.  As 
the  percentage  of  cossettes  obtained  varies  with  the  saccharine 
quality  of  the  beets  worked,  it  is  well  for  the  manufacturer  not 
to  make  any  rash  promises  as  to  the  amount  he  can  furnish  and 
the  quality  of  the  product.  Hence  20  per  cent,  is  considered  a 
reasonable  limit.  From  100  Ibs.  of  beets  there  are  obtained  on 
an  average  42  Ibs.  of  cossettes;  the  difference  should  be  con- 
sumed by  animals  at  the  factory. 

Diffusion  must  be  conducted  under  most  scientific  principles, 
otherwise  the  feeding- value  of  the  pulp  suffers.  If  the  tempera- 
ture is  too  high  there  follows  a  coagulation  of  many  of  the 
nutritive  elements.  To  protect  the  farmers'  interest  and  to 
make  sure  of  harmony  among  all  interested,  an  understanding 
should  exist  as  to  limits  of  temperature  at  which  the  battery  is 
to  be  worked.  If  farmers  sell  siloed  pulp  to  their  neighbors, 
they  should  ask  double  the  purchase  price  at  the  factory,  to 
which  should  also  be  added  the  expense  of  transportation  and 
siloing.  The  bulk  is  reduced  one-half,  but  the  value  has  re- 
mained unchanged. 

These  pressed  cossettes  are  in  some  cases  fed  to  live  stock  as 
fast  as  received  or  they  are  kept  in  specially  built  silos.  Farm- 
ers collect  the  product  at  the  factor}7  in  wagons  or  carts,  or 
transport  it  by  water  in  boats  constructed  for  this  purpose. 
Conveyance  of  Respecting  this  question  of  transportation,  there  is  no  special 
1  remark  to  be  made,  except  that  wagons,  carts  or  boats  which 
have  previously  served  the  purpose  of  carrying  beets  to  the  fac- 
tory and  have  thereby  become  dirty  on  account  of  adhering 
earth,  should  in  all  cases  undergo  a  special  cleaning  before  being 
filled  with  the  residuum  cossettes.  This  cleaning  also  serves 
the  purpose  of  diminishing  the  possible  contamination  of  certain 
bacteria  that  frequently  accompany  earth  of  all  kinds.  These 
would  necessarily  bring  about  complex  fermentation  during  the 
siloing. 

Importance  of       It  is  well  to  note  that  with  forage  in  general  it  is  always  de- 
keeping  the    sirable  not  to  allow  gravel  and  sand,  or  other  hard  substances, 
residuum  clean.  ^o  penetrate  the  mass,  as  these  would  produce  a  disagreeable 
sensation  during  the  process  of  rumination. 


IMPORTANCE  OF  ADDING  LIME.  141 

When  it  is  desirable  to  feed  the  cossettes  just  after  they  leave  Changes  when 
the  presses,  it  is  important  that  it  be  done  as  soon  as  possible,  exposed  to  the 
as  they  rapidly  undergo  transformation,  due  to  bacteria  absorbed         air- 
or  taken  from  the  air,  which  soon  find  in  the  cossettes  an  excel- 
lent medium  for  their  development.     The  micro-organisms  also 
existing  will  necessarily  produce  an  objectionable  fermentation, 
which  has  no  relation  whatever   to  the   healthy  fermentation 
occurring  during  the  siloing. 

Cossettes  exposed  to  the  air  soon  give  evidence  of  putrefaction, 
which  render  them  worthless  for  feeding  purposes.     Under  no   Not  to  be  fed 
circumstances  is  it  recommended  that  cattle  be  fed  with  cossettes    alone  to  live 
alone.     However,  certain  practical  experiments  have  shown  that       stocl(t 
no  special  evil  effects  arise  from  this  practice;  but  their  compo- 
sition, as  shown  above,  demonstrates  that  this  residuum,  like 
all  fodders,  is  not  complete  within  itself. 

Exhausted  cossettes  are  very  poor  in  fatty  and  saline  sub-  Feeding  value 
stances.  Their  dry  constituents  consist  mainly  in  non-nitrogen-  of  cossettes. 
ous  substances  of  only  an  average  nutritive  value,  their  carbo- 
hydrates are  mainly  cellulose  and  penta-glucoses;  but  the 
reasonable  percentage  of  albuminoids  w7hich  the  residuum 
contains,  renders  this  product  a  fresh  and  valuable  fodder,  not- 
withstanding its  heavy  percentage  of  water,  which  necessarily 
dilutes  the  nutritive  substances.  The  deficiency  of  saline  sub- 
stances is  partly  overcome  by  the  addition  to  the  ration  of  a 
small  quantity  of  salt  mixed  with  the  cossettes,  or,  as  is  fre- 
quently done,  a  large  block  of  salt  may  be  placed  at  the  animals' 
disposal,  which  they  can  lick  to  their  hearts'  content,  their 
appetite  being  thus  stimulated. 

It   is,    upon  general   principles,    desirable  to  add   a  certain  Importance  of 
amount  of  lime  or  phosphoric  acid  in  the  form  of  phosphate,    adding  lime, 
which  is  necessary  for  the  building  up  of  the  bony  tissues.     As 
to  lime,  it  is  sufficient  to  mix  with  the  forage  any  calcareous 
substance,  such  as  carbonatation  scum.     This  is  essential,  as 
many  who  have  had  experience  in  the  special  subject  of  cattle- 
feeding  and  dairying  in  general  declare  that  when  cheese  is  the 
object  in  viewT,  lime  should  not  be  used  too  sparingly,  as  other- 
wise the  cheese  would  not  be  possessed  of  the  essentials  for 
coagulation.      On  the  other  hand,  the  phenomenon  of  faulty 


142      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

coagulation  is  attributed  to  the  contamination  of  the  milk  with 
the  micro-organisms  with  which  the  cossettes  become  saturated 
when  brought  into  contact  with  the  air  of  the  stable. 

Phosphoric  acid      Phosphoric  acid  may  be  supplied  by  mixing  with  the  resid- 
to  be  added.   uum  pressed  cossettes  any  forage  containing  this  acid  in  a  reason- 
able proportion.     For  this  purpose  one  may  use  oil  cake  resid- 
uum of  various  origins.     These  are  very  valuable  from  another 
standpoint;  they  give  the  requisite  quantity  of  fatty  substances, 
which  are  entirely  absent  in  diffusion  and  pressed   cossettes. 
When  these  fatty  constituents  are  absent  in  the  forage  fed  to 
milk  cows  there  follow  certain  difficulties  in  the  production  of 
butter. 
Beet  cossettes  in      The  growth  of  our  population  and   the  increased   value  of 

cattle  feeding,  lands,  render  the  problem  of  cattle  feeding  much  more  com- 
plicated than  formerly.  Stall  feeding  is  now  more  general  than 
it  used  to  be,  but  the  custom  in  the  United  States  is  practiced 
only  to  a  limited  extent,  as  compared  with  Europe.  The  idea 
in  view,  however,  in  both  cases  remains  the  same,  i.  e.,  to  pur- 
chase cattle  at  the  lowest  price  and  sell  with  the  greatest  profit. 
That  the  selling  price  per  pound  increases  with  an  increase  in 
total  weight  of  the  animal  is  a  well-known  fact. 

The  fattening  should  cease  when  the  conditions  do  not  appear 
favorable  for  its  continuance;  that  is,  when  interest  of  money 
and  cost  of  fodder  used  are  more  than  the  money  value  of  the 
daily  gain  in  weight.  The  question  of  beet  pulps  for  milch 
cows  is  of  far  greater  importance  than  the  average  reader  can  at 
first  realize;  for,  if  the  cost  of  production  of  a  quart  of  milk  can 
be  made  less  than  at  present,  there  would  necessarily  follow  a 
decrease  in  the  selling  price  of  that  necessity  of  life,  which 
would  benefit  the  laboring  class  in  general. 

The  fattening  of  sheep  with  beet  cossettes  has  of  late  been 
conducted  on  a  very  extended  scale  in  the  United  States,  not 
only  in  California  but  also  in  Nebraska,  etc.,  and  it  may  cer- 
tainly be  made  profitable  in  the  Eastern  States.  Wool  in  abun- 
dance on  American  soil  means  cheaper  clothing.  Without  at- 
tempting any  other  economic  argument,  suffice  it  to  say,  that 
beet-cossette  residuum  utilization  is  destined  to  take  a  most  im- 
portant part  in  the  general  prosperity  of  our  country. 


DANGERS    OF    FEEDING    BEET    PULPS.  143 

No  general  rule  can  be  given  as  to  the  best  methods  for  feeding,  HOW  to  feed 
as  they  depend  upon  the  special  circumstance  of  the  locality,  beet  pulps. 
Siloed  pulp,  upon  general  principles,  being  better  than  the  fresh, 
the  farmer  has  every  reason  to  give  the  silo  his  best  possible 
attention.  The  ration  should  vary  with  the  special  animal  to 
be  fed;  and  samples  of  rations  should  not  be  considered  as 
standard,  but  taken  simply  as  guiding  points  in  the  experiment. 
With  fresh  pulps  suitable  quantities  of  oil  cake  should  always 
be  used,  taking  the  precaution  to  mix  them  with  a  certain 
amount  of  chopped  straw  and  fermenting  the  same  in  special 
vats. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  found  desirable,  to  accelerate 
the  fermentation  by  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  tepid 
water.  It  is  well  to  have  two  vats,  one  fermenting  while  feed- 
ing from  the  other.  To  avoid  hot  water  in  excess,  a  slow  heat- 
ing of  the  mass  is  highly  recommended  by  some;  the  effect  of 
this  system  appears  to  be  most  satisfactory. 

Under    certain    circumstances   live    stock    may    decline    the     Dangers  of 
cossettes;  then  a  mild  system  of   starvation  may  be-  adopted.    '^"9 beet 
This  method,  however,  from  the  wrriter's   point  of   view,  can 
never  be  made  profitable,   as  the  loss  of  weight  could  not  be 
compensated  by  the  economy  in  the  cost  of  fodder  used.     The 
addition  of  condiments  is  one  of  the  best  methods;  a  little  salt 
water  frequently  answers  the  purpose,  and  diluted  molasses  is 
most  excellent.     It  may  be  desirable  to  mix  with  the  pulp  a 
very  tempting  fodder,  and  to  diminish  this  gradually. 

In  the  whole  question  of  feeding  beet  pulps  to  cattle  there  are 
important  facts  not  to  be  overlooked.  When  the  pulp  is  fed 
fresh  the  main  difficulty  is  overfeeding,  or  not  properly  prepar- 
ing the  ration  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  special  case  under 
consideration.  Siloed  pulps  undergo  organic  changes  during 
their  keeping;  first,  they  may  become  mouldy,  second,  saturated 
with  excess  of  alcoholic  vapors,  and  third,  attacked  by  a  certain 
disease  known  as  pulp  malady.  The  portions  of  siloed  pulp  that 
become  mouldy  are  generally  at  the  top,  being  more  in  contact 
with  the  air.  Distillery  pulp  owing  to  its  acidity  keeps  longer, 
consequently  many  conclude  that  a  slight  acidity  is  rather 
desirable.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  allow  any  mouldy  pulp  to 


144  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

be  used,  as  death  may  ensue.     No  one  has  yet  discovered  the 
form  of  bacteria  responsible  for  the  trouble. 

The  saturation  of  pulps  with  alcoholic  vapors  is  rather  an 
advantage,  as  the  cattle  eat  it  with  considerable  avidity.  The 
excess  of  alcohol  in  beet  pulps  is  never  as  great  with  diffusion 
cossettes  as  with  the  hydraulic-press  residuum,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  the  latter  contains  more  sugar  that  could  generate 
alcohol.  During  the  period  when  presses  were  used  as  a  means 
of  extracting  the  juice  from  pulp  during  the  regular  process  of 
manufacture,  one  would  constantly  hear  of  actual  intoxication, 
the  animals  falling  to  the  ground  and  remaining  in  an  almost 
comatose  state  for  a  considerable  time.  After  the  effects  had 
passed  off  they  would  rise  and  eat  as  if  nothing  had  occurred. 
These  alcoholic  pulps  would,  after  a  time,  cause  cerebral  com- 
plications. Before  that  period  is  reached  the  flesh  has  depre- 
ciated in  value;  this  is,  however,  a  difficulty  at  present  almost 
unknown. 

Beet  pulp  disease.  A  few  years  since  it  was  noticed  that  in  certain  parts  of 
France  cows  fed  on  well  combined  rations  were  suffering  from 
certain  organic  complications.  A  young  bull  being  fattened 
became  suddenly  ill.  No  cause  could  be  attributed  for  the 
same.  After  death  the  animal  was  examined  and  found  to 
have  suffered  from  serious  stomach  and  intestinal  complications. 
Fortunately  such  instances  are  of  rare  occurrence,  but  it  was 
discovered  that  the  pulp  used  was  from  a  very  old  silo. 

The  toxic  elements  existing,  that  will  necessarily  cause  physi- 
cal complications  if  taken  into  the  system,  are  tl;e  outcome  of 
the  early  stages  of  decay  of  the  product  fed.  The  objectionable 
microbes  are  found  mainly  in  the  water  running  off.  At  first 
the  animals  suffering  from  the  disease  are  very  restless;  severe 
colics  soon  manifest  themselves,  and  considerable  suffering  and 
pain  always  accompany  these  troubles.  The  most  objectionable 
pulps  are  those  that  have  been  stored  for  a  period  of  months. 
Practical  experiments  show  that  if  the  kept  residuum  is  heated 
to  212°  F.,  all  the  microbes  they  contain  are  destroyed.  This, 
in  fact,  applies  to  most  bacteria.  This  mode  cannot  be  prac- 
tically applied.  Sodic  chlorid  or  common  salt  offers  one  of 
the  very  best  means  of  destroying  objectionable  microbes.  This 


DANGERS    OF    COSSETTE    FEEDING.  145 

should  be  combined  with  pulps  in  the  proportion  of  0.25  to  0.30 
per  cent.  It  is  important  not  to  use  it  in  excess.  Every  few 
days  there  should  be  placed  at  the  animal's  disposal  a  salt  solu- 
tion, permitting  the  animal  to  use  its  own  discretion  as  to 
quantity  taken. 

Decomposed,  or  mildewed  cossettes,  should  never  be  used  for 
cattle  feeding,  as  the  general  health  of  the  animals  fed  would 
suffer.  There  would  follow  colics,  swelling  of  the  intestine, 
cramp,  paralysis,  etc.,  due  to  ptomaines  and  ferments,  from 
which  there  is  always  to  be  feared  a  continued  action  upon  the 
nervous  system. 

Arlaing  attributes  to  sour  cossettes  certain  diseases  of  the  ren- 
net. Stift  declares  that  lactic  acid,  when  present  in  excess, 
always  means  certain  complications  of  the  bony  tissues.  Ac- 
cording to  Gerland,  notwithstanding  all  the  water  that  the  cos- 
settes may  contain,  soured  cossette  feeding  means  diarrhoea  only, 
provided  there  has  been  a  sudden  lowering  of  temperature  of 
the  intestinal  tubes.  On  the  other  hand,  these  sour  cossettes 
increase  the  secretion  of  the  kidneys. 

There  certainly  are  many  advantages  in  using  soured  cossettes 
rather  than  the  fresh  residuum,  as  they  contain  less  water.  An 
excessive  consumption  of  cossettes  may  result  in  an  excessive 
flow  of  blood  to  the  brain  or  spine.  Under  these  circumstances 
there  follow  intestinal  troubles  in  the  animals,  resulting  in  death, 
owing  to  diarrhoea. 

All  of  these  alleged  dangers  from  feeding  cossettes  do  Conclusions  as 
not  in  any  way  reduce  their  actual  value  and  excellent  feeding  to  dangers  of 
qualities  taken  as  a  whole  and  considered  as  forage,  provided,  cossette 
however,  they  be  not  fed  to  excess.  It  is  desirable  that  the  cos- 
settes be  not  allowed  to  undergo  any  organic  transformation 
during  their  keeping,  the  natural  fermentation  being  the  limit. 
Microbes  that  may  be  accidentally  introduced  will  bring 
about  complications,  and  it  has  been  noticed  that  soured  cos- 
settes are  particularly  favorable  for  this  bacteriological  develop- 
ment. Many  essays  have  been  written  which  endeavor  to 
demonstrate  that  it  is  to  this  source  that  we  must  look  for  nearly 
all  the  diseases  that  cossette-fed  cattle  have  had  to  fight  against. 
The  technical  discoveries  in  this  matter  have  been  such  that 
10 


146      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

efforts  have  been  made  to  prohibit,  in  the  working  of  the  diffu- 
sion batteries,  the  use  of  certain  waters  which  are  supposed  to 
contain  microbes.  It  frequently  happens  in  the  manufacture  of 
beet  sugar  that  there  is  a  scarcity  of  water,  and  under  these  con- 
ditions it  becomes  imperative  to  use  the  water  that  the  manu- 
facturer has  at  his  disposal  over  and  over  again.  However, 
compressed  air  comes  to  the  rescue  when  water  is  scarce,  and 
man}7'  advantages  have  been  derived  from  its  use. 

While  it  has  not  been  conclusively  demonstrated  that  water 
contains  germs  which  prove  themselves  to  be  decidedly  objection- 
able, it  has  been  shown  beyond  cavil  that  the  cossettes  appear 
to  combine  certain  elements  favoring  putrefaction  upon  coining 
in  contact  with  the  unknown  microbes  during  siloing,  thus 
considerably  increasing  the  losses  occurring  during  this 
keeping: 

The  pulp  malady  is  a  comparatively  new  fad  among  scientists 
who  declare  that  the  trouble  commences  in  the  intestinal  canal; 
diarrhoea  is  the  second  stage.  While  it  is  admitted  that  special 
microbes  have  been  found  in  rotten  pulps,  it  is  interesting  to 
note  that  it  is  not  from  the  microbe  the  difficulty  arises,  but 
through  internal  complications.  The  toxic  substances  formed 
may  be  numerous,  some  of  which  are  precipitated  in  alcohol 
while  others  are  soluble  therein.  Their  action  in  these  cases  is 
very  different,  and  recent  investigations  appear  to  show  that  it 
is  those  elements  soluble  in  alcohol  which  are  the  most  to  be 
dreaded,  as  they  cause  convulsions  and  frequently  death.  None 
of  these  difficulties  will  ever  occur  if  the  pulps  are  boiled  or 
dried. 

These  facts  have  been  mentioned  as  offering  a  certain  interest 
for  those  who  contemplate  cattle  fattening  on  an  extended  scale. 
It  is  also  important  to  note  that  among  many  thousands  of 
beeves  fattened  with  beet  pulp  for  the  European  market  for  a 
period  of  years,  there  has  not  been  a  single  case  where  the  farm- 
ers complained  of  any  evil  effects  arising  from  an  extended  use 
of  the  residuum.  When  the  difficulty  does  occur,  the  farmer 
himself  is  responsible,  as  when  beet  pulps  are  fed  alone  there 
may  be  some  danger  of  osteomalacia  (softening  of  the  bones). 
Such  practice  of  feeding  can  certainly  have  no  advantage  other 


PRODUCTION    OF    MILK    AND    BUTTER.  147 

than  economy,  which  does  not  prove  profitable  in  the  end.  The 
disease  in  question  appears  to  be  more  prevalent  among  cows 
than  oxen;  the  latter  appear  to  be  better  able  to  resist  any  ab- 
sorption from  their  bony  frame.  Let  the  ration  contain  enough 
salts  (phosphate  of  lime,  soda,  potassa,  etc.);*  let  the  by-fodders 
have  the  saline  elements  needed,  and  the  pulp  malady  will  pos- 
sess no  more  than  a  passing  interest. 

There  is  a  great  difference  of  opinion  as  regards  the  value  of  Feeding  with  the 
beet  pulp  on  dairy  farms.  Some  say,  that  under  all  circum-  view  to  produc- 
stances  the  milk  from  cows  fed  upon  the  product  has  an  un-  tion  °*  mi!k 

and  butVr 

pleasant  taste  and  is  worthless  for  the  city  market;  others,  on 
the  contrary,  argue  that  the  milk  is  sweeter  than  can  be  ob- 
tained by  the  use  of  any  other  fodder;  that  the  bad  taste  of  milk 
is  due  to  the  use  of  inferior  siloed  pulp,  which  has  undergone 
some  alteration  during  keeping.  The  abundance  of  milk  that 
follows  pulp  feeding  no  one  doubts — the  quantity  is  greater,  but 
the  quality  diminished.  Under  all  circumstances,  it  is  certain 
that  the  results  obtained  depend  as  much  upon  the  care  taken 
as  upon  the  fodder  used.  It  would  be  impossible  to  give  a  full 
synopsis  in  the  present  writing  of  the  numerous  trustworthy 
and  scientific  experiments  that  have  been  made  bearing  on  this 
question.  However,  a  synopsis  of  a  few  of  them  are  given: 

1st.  The  daily  ration  during  first  week  for  a  cow  weighing 
700  Ibs.  contained  38  Ibs.  rutabaga;  the  yield  of  milk  was  5 
quarts  per  diem;  the  second  week  60  Ibs.  diffusion  pulp,  yield 

*  Just  whether  common  salt,  if  mixed  with  pulp  attacked  by  the  malady, 
overcomes  all  complications  to  be  dreaded,  remains  to  be  yet  thoroughly  dem- 
onstrated. Some  French  experiments  appear  to  prove  that  salt  does  not  over- 
come the  difficulty.  The  main  thing  to  be  avoided  is  the  use  of  cossettes 
that  have  for  a  period  of  months  been  in  contact  with  the  stagnant  water  of  a 
silo.  In  this  respect  cemented  silos  for  beet  pulp  are  objectionable  unless 
thoroughly  drained  and  those  simply  made  in  the  ground  are  far  preferable. 
An  interesting  fact  not  to  be  overlooked  is  that  the  lower  strata  of  a  silo  may 
frequently  be  worthless  for  cattle  feeding,  while  a  few  inches  from  the  cos- 
sette  upper  surface  may  be  in  an  excellent  condition  for  sheep,  cattle,  etc. 

"When  the  feeding  of  diffusion  or  distillery  cossettes  to  ordinary  cattle  has 
become  a  regular  business,  it  is  desirable  to  isolate  the  animals  being  fattened 
from  other  stock  so  as  to  avoid  the  spread  of  disease,  when  it  occurs,  to  more 
valuable  domestic  animals. 


148      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

of  milk  5.7  quarts;  third  week  121  Ibs.  pulp,  yield  of  milk  fij 
quarts.  The  yield  of  milk  consequently  increased  30  per  cent. 
The  beet  ration  had  little  or  no  influence  on  the  casein,  which 
fact  seems  to  be  a  general  conclusion  of  all  observers.  The  yield 
of  butter  increased  12  per  cent. 

2d.  Among  the  most  important  experiments  in  this  special 
direction  are  those  of  Andouard  and  Vezaunay,  who  fed  pulp 
in  constantly  increasing  quantities  up  to  188  lk-\  per  diem. 
Their  conclusion  was  that  the  influence  of  pulp  increases  the 
yield  of  milk  34  per  cent. ;  butter  increased  6.74  per  cent.  After 
three  months  the  weight  of  fodder  might  have  been  augmented 
40  Ibs.  The  objectionable  flavor  of  milk  was  no  greater  than  with 
the  use  of  other  fermented  fodders.  Beet  pulps  are  very  profit- 
able in  the  production  of  butter  and  meat.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, that  the  milk  obtained  has  a  special  tendency  to  acid  fer- 
mentation.* 

Continued  feeding  Klein  has  noticed  that  after  a  long  feeding  with  cossettes  the 
with  cossettes.  resulting  milk  contains  2.22  per  cent,  less  fatty  substances  than 
it  did  during  the  early  stages  of  feeding.  Upon  general  princi- 
ples one  may  admit  that  this  decrease  is  observable  in  cossette 
feeding  in  general.  To  counterbalance  this  argument  it  is  well 
not  to  forget  that  the  volume  of  milk  secreted  increases  very 
considerably  under  the  influence  of  beet  residuum  fodders,  and 
under  these  conditions  the  total  fatty  substances  secreted  are  in 
reality  greater  than  with  most  fodders. 

*  The  American  farmers  having  given  the  question  of  diffusion  cossettes  a 
fair  trial,  are  pleased  with  the  results.  Besides  the  cases  cited  elsewhere,  we 
may  mention  another  where  100  head  of  cattle  were  fed  upon  beet  pulps  com- 
bined with  other  fodders.  Small  cattle  were  purchased  in  the  autumn  at  He. 
per  pound,  and  were  sold  five  months  later  at  3c.  per  pound.  Beeves  pur- 
chased at  2jjc.  live  weight  might  subsequently  be  sold  at  4c. ,  their  average 
increase  being  230  Ibs.  It  is  recommended  to  purchase  beeves  weighing 
1,200  Ibs.  at  $30.00  each;  the  cost  of  feeding,  including  labor,  will  be  about 
$23.00  each,  total  cost  $53.00;  such  were  sold  at  $71.50,  the  profit  $18.50  per 
head.  Under  these  circumstances  it  follows  that  if  beet  pulp  utilization  is  not 
general  it  is  due  to  the  ignorance  of  those  discussing  the  question.  It  is  true 
the  residuum  when  fresh  is  too  bulky,  but  this  objection  cannot  be  urged  when 
it  has  been  properly  siloed;  furthermore,  an  extended  feeding  with  fresh  pulp 
would  be  a  mistake.  It  appears  to  be  generally  forgotten  that  beet  residuum 
from  the  diffusion  battery  is  more  nourishing  than  was  the  original  beet. 


WATER    IN    BEET    PULPS.  149 

All  investigators  have  not  come  to  the  same  conclusion  as  re-  Excessive 
gards  excessive  cossette  feeding.  According  to  Briem  when  this  feeding, 
cossette  feeding  is  pushed  to  an  excess  the  resulting  butter  will 
have  a  very  tallow-like  appearance  and  bad  taste,  which  objec- 
tionable features  are  most  difficult  to  get  rid  of,  even  when  the 
animals  receive  the  requisite  supply  of  palm-oil  cakes,  rice  flour, 
corn  residuum,  etc.  Furthermore,  certain  authorities  declare 
that  it  is  a  mistake  to  give  cossettes  to  cows  that  are  to  supply 
milk  to  be  fed  to  babies,  or  to  animals  undergoing  their  period 
of  gestation,  or  even  when  the  calf  is  still  sucking.  But  all 
these  views  are  exaggerated,  as  pressed  cossettes  constitute  a 
nutrient  as  healthy  as  any  known  forage  for  cattle  that  are 
being  fattened  or  for  those  th-it  are  being  raised. 

Schulze  points  out  that  if  12  per  cent,  dry  matter  is  sufficient 
for  a  forage  being  fed  to  milch  cows,  the  conditions  are  the 
same  for  cattle  fed  with  the  idea  of  obtaining  their  manure  or 
for  breeding  purposes. 

European  farmers,  during  a  period  of  thirty  years,  have  be-  w  f 
come  thoroughly  accustomed  to  using  beet  residuum  from  beet- 
sugar  factories  and  distilleries.  The  product  from  the  factory 
came  from  hydraulic  presses  and  contained  very  much  less  water 
than  the  cossettes  from  diffusion  batteries.  Numerous  discus- 
sions followed,  showing  that  there  was  every  advantage  in  using 
diffusion  cossettes,  notwithstanding  they  contained  more  water. 
This  excess  offered  no  difficulty  when  mixing  with  chopped 
straw  or  some  other  material  that  would  absorb  the  moisture. 
Experiments  show  that  an  ox  weighing  1,000  Ibs.  should  not 
absorb  more  than  60  to  80  Ibs.  water  per  diem;  if  this  limit  is 
passed  the  weight  of  the  animal  being  fed  decreases.  This  is 
explained  by  the  fact  that  the  gastric  juices  of  the  stomach  are 
then  so  diluted  that  assimilation  of  the  fodder  is  not  satis- 
factory; besides  which,  as  Maercker  justly  argues,  to  evaporate 
this  water  a  certain  amount  of  the  animal's  caloric  must  be 
drawn  upon. 

The  degrees  of  caloric  necessary  may  be  easily  calculated,  and 
reduced  to  the  basis  of  starch — it  being  admitted  that  for  every 
pound  of  starch-combustion  in  the  body  there  is  required  a 
given  number  of  degrees  of  heat.  When  water  is  in  excess  it 


150      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

will  exert  a  reflex  action  upon  the  albuminoids  of  the  body. 
An  exceptional  quantity  of  water  taken  into  the  body  has  a  de- 
bilitating action  owing  to  the  dilution  of  blood  that  it  brings 
about. 

From  this  same  standpoint  it  is  a  mistake  to  feed  frozen  cos- 
settes.  The  freezing  occurs  during  the  transportation  of  the 
residuum  from  the  sugar  factory  to  the  stable.  There  can  fol- 
low thereby  all  kinds  of  stomach  diseases  and  complications. 
Such  cossettes  should  undergo  a  preliminary  thawing  before 
being  fed. 

According  to  Elert  it  is  desirable  to  feed  to  animals  a  quantity 
of  forage  proportional  to  their  percentage  of  water.  The  follow- 
ing per  diem  ration  is  proposed  by  Ahrens  for  horned  cattle: 

75  Ibs.  pressed  cossettes;  2  Ibs.  oil  cake;  5  Ibs.  clover  hay;  2 
Ibs.  chopped  straw. 

Rations  for         Briem  recommends  that  working  oxen  shall  receive  30  to  80 
working  oxen.  Ibs.  of  cossettes  per  diem,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  ani- 
mals.    Under  all  circumstances  it  is  desirable  that  the  limit  of 
the  ration  shall  not  be  more  than  8  per  cent,  of  the  animal's 
weight. 

On  some  Austrian  farms,  oxen  are  worked  for  two  or  three 
months  and  then  stall-fed  for  the  market.  In  the  spring  of  each 
year  a  number  of  beeves  are  purchased  whose  individual  weight 
is  never  less  than  1000  Ibs.  These  are  used  for  ploughing  until 
December,  and  then  fattened  for  150  days.  Summer  fodder 
consists  of  grass  with  2  Ibs.  corn,  2  Ibs.  barley  ground  and 
mixed  with  barley  straw.  During  the  early  winter  88  Ibs.  fresh 
cossettes;  later  in  the  season  the  same  amount  of  pulp  from 
silos,  instead  of  fresh  cossettes.  During  the  following  period, 
and  according  to  the  animal's  condition,  there  are  given  besides 
the  above  7  to  10  Ibs.  corn  ground  with  11  Ibs.  hay.  The  re- 
sulting increase  in  weight  is  20  per  cent. 

For  oxen  doing  heavy  work  from  January  to  May,  on  an 
Austrian  farm,  the  ration  was:  Beet  pulp  79  Ibs.,  hay  19  Ibs., 
chopped  straw  4.4  Ibs.,  crushed  grain  4.4  Ibs.,  malt  sprouts  1.1 
Ibs.,  salt  -J  Ib.  Oxen  used  at  an  experiment  station  in  France, 
received  a  daily  ration  consisting  of  distillery  pulp  88  Ibs., 
hay  11  Ibs.,  chopped  straw  11  Ibs.,  oil  cake  6.6  Ibs. 


RATIONS    FOR    SHEEP,    HORSES    AND    PIGS.  151 

Ration  for  bulls  on  an  Austrian  farm:  Beets  22  Ibs.,  pulp  11 
Ibs.,  hay  4.4  Ibs.,  clover  hay  2.2  Ibs.,  oats  1.1  Ibs.,  chopped 
straw  9. 8  Ibs. ,  straw  waste  8  Ibs. ,  salt  J-  Ib.  Rations  for  live  stock 
in  general,  as  used  in  France:  1st.  Diffusion  pulp  132  Ibs.,  wheat 
husks  8.8  Ibs.,  corn  flour  4.4  Ibs.,  oil  cake  4.4  Ibs.,  flour  sift- 
ings  4.4  Ibs.  2d.  Diffusion  pulp  121  Ibs.,  colza-oil  cake  2.5 
Ibs.,  flour  siftings  2.2  Ibs.,  bean  husks  2.2  Ibs.,  wheat  husks  2.2 
Ibs.  3d.  Diffusion  pulp  121  Ibs.,  corn  flour  4.8  Ibs.,  flour  sift- 
ings  4.8  Ibs.,  oil  cake  4.8  Ibs. 

Sheep  may  be  fed  with  cossettes  when  they  are  not  being    Rations  for 
specially  raised  for  their  wool  or  selection  for  breeding   pur-       sh«p. 
poses.     Eight   kilos,    per   diem   per   100   Ibs.    weight   is   con- 
sidered a  desirable  limit.     To  other  sheep  very  little  is  fed,  and 
some  claim  that  cossettes  should  not  be  used  at  all  for  sheep 
feeding. 

Ration  for  fattening  sheep  from  January  to  May  on  an  Aus- 
trian farm:  Pulp  6.6  Ibs.,  chopped  straw  1  Ib.,  hay  J  Ib.  Ra- 
tion at  an  experiment  statio'n,  France:  1st.  Beet  pulp  5.3  Ibs.; 
hay  3.0  Ibs.,  oil  cake  0.6  Ibs.,  barley  J  Ib.  2d.  Beet  pulp  3.3 
Ibs.,  hay  4.4  Ibs.,  bran  J  Ib.,  oil  cake  i  Ib.  For  oxen  doing 
very  little  work  on  an  Austrian  farm,  the  ration  for  1,000  Ibs. 
live  weight,  was:  Beet  pulp  55  Ibs.,  fermented  corn  meal  44 
Ibs.,  crushed  peas  1.1  Ibs.,  crushed  barley  2.2  Ibs.,  malt  sprouts 
1.1  Ibs.,  oat  straw  5.5  Ibs. 

The  feeding  of  fresh  pulps  to  horses  and  mules  does  not  ap-  Ration  for  mults 
pear   desirable   in   all   cases.     On  some  farms  satisfactory   re-          f 
suits  are  obtained  with  16  Ibs.  beets  combined  with  12  Ibs.  pulp 
and  12  Ibs.  chopped  straw. 

Another  authority  recommends  that  working  horses,  when 
stall  fed,  shall  receive  from  10  to  20  kilos,  of  cossettes  per 
animal  per  diem,  and  when  this  amount  is  decreased  the  work- 
ing power  of  the  horse  appears  to  diminish.  Pubertz  says 
horses  may  be  kept  in  an  excellent  condition  by  a  fodder 
consisting  of  100  kilos,  cossettes,  50  kilos,  oats  residuum,  50 
kilos,  hay,  20  kilos,  rye  bran.  Ahrens,  on  the  other  hand,  ob- 
tained excellent  results  by  feeding  to  horses  90  Ibs.  of  cossettes 
per  diem. 

Numerous  experiments  show  that  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  feed  Ration  for  pigs. 


152 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


more  than  10  Ibs.  per  diem  of  beet  pulps  to  pigs.  Under  all 
circumstances  the  residuum  must  be  combined  with  some  other 
fodder.  Experts  justly  maintain  that  the  intestinal  canal  of 
swine  is  unsuited  for  the  proper  assimilation  of  refuse  cossettes 
from  the  diffusion  battery.  In  certain  parts  of  Germany  potato 
pulp  from  distilleries  is  combined  in  equal  parts  with  beet  pulps 
to  form  3  gallons,  to  which  is  added  1 J  quarts  of  crushed  barley 
per  diem. 

A  greater  quantity  than  this  limit  brings  about  in  swine  a  de- 
crease in  the  quality  of  the  fat  and  flesh,  and  in  some  cases  re- 
sults in  a  dropsical  condition  of  their  entire  cellular  tissues. 
Moreover,  when  such  animals  are  fed  with  beet  cossettes  it  is 
desirable  that  the  product  shall  undergo  a  preliminary  boiling 
or  steaming  so  as  to  concentrate  the  same.  It  is  desirable  upon 
the  whole,  however,  not  to  feed  pigs  with  beet  cossettes,  although 
there  are  authorities  who  declare  that  the  intestinal  tubes  of 
swine  are  admirably  adopted  to  the  assimilation  of  the  constitu- 
ents contained  in  this  residuum  (?). 

Practical  experiments  by  Simon  Legrand  during  94  days  in 
feeding  diffusion  pulp  to  cattle  gave  the  following  results: 

NINETY-FOUR  DAY  EXPERIMENT  IN  FEEDING  DIFFUSION  PULP  TO  CATTLE. 


ITEMS. 

Oxen. 

Bulls. 

Total. 

Quantity  of  diffusion  pulp  consumed 
Cost  of  pulp  

620,400  Ibs. 
$70o  00 

310.000  Ibs. 

<RQ.=j9  4() 

930,400  Ibs. 
$1  n/%7  00 

Total  cost  of  fodder- 

«i  ittc  00 

«SQ1  00 

$1    7Qv>    00 

Total  cost  of  cattle  and  fodder  
Total  selling  price  of  cattle  with  no 
allowance  for  value  of  manure-  -  . 
Total  weight  before  fattening  
Total  weight  after  fattening  

$4,197  60 

$5,607  00 
46,640  Ibs. 
58  700  Ibs 

$158  40 

$2,319  80 
22,410  Ibs. 

27  588  Ibs 

$5,781  00 

$7,928  00 
69,080  Ibs. 
86  398  Ibs 

Mixing  cassettes      Upon  general  principles   it  may  be  said  there  are  important 
with  other     advantages  to  be  derived  in  mixing  cossettes  with  other  fodders 
fodders.      an(j  arranging  the  combination  in  such  a  manner  that  the  cos- 
settes shall  be  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  weight  of  the  animals  fed 
in  the  case  of  oxen,  and  7.5  per  cent,  in  the  case  of  sheep.     These 


RATIONS    FOR    MILCH    COWS.  153 

amounts  are  perhaps  excessive.     There  are  many  authorities 
who  recommend  as  an  outside  limit  4  per  cent,  of  their  weight. 

Soured  cossettes  when  given  alone  as  a  forage  are  not  desirable, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  some  experiments  which  have  been 
made  are  rather  encouraging  in  their  results.  Without  doubt, 
from  a  chemical  standpoint,  there  are  certain  constituents  lack- 
ing to  form  a  complete  forage.  They  may  contain  nitrogenous 
elements  in  sufficient  amounts,  but  this  quantity  is  not  sufficient 
to  do  away  with  other  combinations  furnishing  additional  nitro- 
gen. The  proportion  between  the  nitrogenous  and  non-nitro- 
genous elements  may  be  put  down  as  1:8.  This,  however, 
depends  upon  the  condition  one  wishes  to  find  the  animals  in 
after  their  feeding,  and  also  depends  upon  the  work  they  are 
called  upon  to  perform.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  well  that  this 
relation  should  be  1:5  to  1:6.5. 

In  all  these  considerations  it  is  well  not  to  lose  sight  of  the 
physiological  condition  of  the  animals  being  fed.  It  is  import- 
ant to  combine  with  the  cossettes  a  certain  amount  of  fibrous 
substances  demanded  by  the  intestinal  canal.  As  neither  the 
fresh  nor  the  siloed  cossettes  contain  sufficient  albumin  and  fatty 
substances,  these  must  be  added  by  the  use  of  hay,  chopped 
straw,  oil  cake,  etc.  We  do  not  put  special  stress  upon  straw 
or  hay,  for  many  residuums  that  may  be  obtainable  on  any 
farm,  such  as  cereals,  vegetables,  etc.,  answer  the  purpose. 

Eisben  recommends  the  following  rations  for  milk  cows,  per    Rations  for 
1000  kilogs.  live  weight:  milch  cows. 


154  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

THREE  RATIONS  FOR  MILCH  Cows  PER  1000  K.  LIVE  WEIGHT. 


Kilos. 

Kind  of  Feeds. 

Per  cent, 
dry  sub- 
stance. 
(Kilos.  ) 

Dry  matter  contains 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 

Protein. 
(Kilos.  ) 

Fatty 
substance. 
(Kilos.) 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 
(Kilos.) 

5 
25 
6 
'6 
1 
5 

Hay 

4.25 
3.12 
5.14 
5.15 
0.87 
4.35 

0.42 

0.28 
0.08 
0.14 
0.30 
0.70 

0.12 
0.02 
0.03 
0.04 
0.10 
0.15 

1.90 
1.81 
2.40 
2.40 
0.30 
2.70 

' 

' 

. 

1:6.25 
>  1:6.8 

-1:4.9 

Summer  straw  •  •  . 
Wheat  balls  .    ... 

48 

3 
50 
10 
4 
1 
3 
1 

Total  

22.88 

2.55 
6.24 

8.57 
3.43 
0.90 
2.62 
0.87 

1.92 

0.25 
0.47 
0.14 
0.08 
0.22 
0.44 
0.30 

0.46 

0.07 
0.05 
0.04 
0.02 
0.02 
0.10 
0.10 

11.51 

1.14 
3.62 
4.01 
1.60 
0.43 
1.62 
0.30 

12.71 

2.28 
2.17 
1.50 
3.21 
0.60 
0.84 
0.54 

Hay  

Barley  straw  

Wheat  middlings. 

\Vheit  bran 

72 

6 
30 
25 

8 
2 
2 
1 

74 

Total  

25.17 

5.10 
3.75 
5.00 

6.86 
1.74 

1.80 
0.86 

25.11 

1.90 

0.50 
0.34 
0.50 
0.11 
0.60 
0.44 
0.13 

2J62 

0.40 

0.14 
0.03 
0.17 
0.03 
0.20 
0.04 
0.03 

0.64 

Hav.. 

Cossettes  

Beet  leaves  

Cereal  wastes  
Colza  oil  meal  •  .  . 
Malt  sprouts  

'Po^al  

11.14 

When  soured  cossettes  are  used  as  a  basis,  they  very  mater- 
ially increase  the  milk  production  which  may  possibly  be  ex- 
plained by  the  action  of  amides  upon  the  cells  of  the  udder. 
Kellner  and  Andiii  have  noticed  that  forage  beets  may  readily 
take  the  place  of  sour  cossettes  in  the  production  of  milk.  These 
assertions  must  be  taken  with  a  certain  reserve,  as  they  are  cer- 
tainly in  contradiction  with  the  observations  made  by  other 
well-known  authorities.  Furthermore,  the  nearer  the  beet  ap- 
proaches the  turnip  the  more  characteristic  will  be  the  flavor 
imparted  to  the  milk  of  the  animals  fed.  Again,  there  is 
always  a  certain  danger  of  acid  fermentation  arising  in  the 
stomach. 


COSSETTES    AS    FOOD    FOR    MAN.  155 

The  last  of  these  rations  is  proposed  for  oxen  and  cattle  being 
fed  for  a  stock  yard.  It  is  evident  that  all  these  proportions 
may  be  modified  by  the  local  conditions,  the  outcome  of  the  ex- 
perience of  the  cattle  raiser.  The  farmer  himself  has  at  his 
disposal  the  vast  number  of  combinations  of  forages  based  upon 
Wolff's  tables,  giving  the  average  composition  of  such  forages. 

The  data  published  respecting  the  digestibility  or  assimilation  Digestibility  of 
of  albuminoids  contained  in  the  residuum  cossettes  varies  con-  residuum  cos- 
siderably.     According  to  Henneberg  it  is  only  45.01  per  cent.,       S€ttes- 
but  this  average  is  entirely  too  low.     Morgen  declares  that  the 
average  is  76.03  per  cent,  for  the  pancreatin  and  pepsin  com- 
bined, which  in  reality  corresponds  in  a  measure  to  the  average 
of  digestibility  of  the  albumen  in  sugar  beets.     Regarding  the 
non-nitrogenous  elements,  Henneberg  declares  that  the  average 
digestibility  should  be  at  least  84  per  cent.     This  data  demon- 
strates beyond  cavil  that  the  forage  under  consideration  has  a 
nutritive  value  which  under  no  circumstances  should  be  over- 
looked, and  consequently  all  efforts  for  its  utilization  are  cer- 
tainly justifiable. 

It  is  interesting  to  recall  the  various  attempts  made  at  its  util-  Cossettes  as  food 
ization  in  the  alimentation  of  human  beings.     It  is  mainly  to      for  man. 
the  poor  provinces  of  Bohemia  and  Poland  that  we  refer,  where 
the  struggle  for  life  is  such  that  any  commodity  having  a  nutri- 
tive value  at  a  reasonable  price  may  be  used.     For  example, 
Fricke  kept  with  salt,  for  a  long  period,  white  cabbage  and  beet 
cossettes  that  had  been  previously  boiled  and  washed.     After 
an  interval  of  four  months  this  combination  still  possessed  an 
excellent  taste  and  could  be  eaten  after  being  properly  seasoned 
with  oil  and  vinegar. 

Ottocar  Cech  says  that  in  Bohemia  the  cossettes  are  first 
washed  in  cold  water  to  free  them  from  sand  and  dirt;  they  are 
then  allowed  to  ferment  during  a  period  of  two  or  three  weeks. 
Under  these  conditions  the  final  product  has  an  excellent  flavor 
and  odor,  and  when  combined  with  caraway  seeds  is  most 
palatable. 

On  the  other  hand  Naprivil  combines  with  the  residuum  cos- 
settes a  certain  amount  of  beans  and  also  lentils  in  order  to  vary 
the  nourishing  combination.  Under  these  circumstances  there 


156  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

was  realized  an  equilibrium,  so  to  speak,  between  the  legumen 
of  this  vegetable  and  the  hydrocarbons  of  the  cossettes.  A  mix- 
ture of  equal  weight  of  lentils  with  sour  cossettes  gives,  accord- 
ing to  this  authority,  a  nutritive  combination  which  is  possessed 
of  great  digestibility.  Hard  beans  ground  to  a  flour  and  put 
with  the  cossettes  give  a  mash  which  is  better  yet. 

Cossettes  as  food      In  Germany,  at  Konigstein,  Hamburg  and  Usingen,  experi- 
for  game,     ments  have  been  made  in  feeding  game  with  residuum  cossettes. 
Hare  and  deer  eat  this  product  only  when  forced  to  do  so. 

Experience  shows  that  it  is  not  desirable  to  allow  the  animals 
fed  during  winter,  when  their  stomachs  are  full  of  cossettes,  to 
remain  for  too  long  a  time  without  a  reasonable  amount  of  ex- 
ercise. Cold  necessarily  paralyzes  the  activity  of  the  stomach 
and  might  result  in  complicated  diseases  that  always  mean  death. 
What  residuum  From  an  economical  standpoint  the  utilization  of  sugar-beet 

cossette  feeding  residuum  cossettes  as  a  forage  has  an  enormous  importance, 
means  in  Qer-  Qermanyj  where  the  annual  out-put  is  ten  millions  of  dollars,  is 
an  example  of  this.  If  one  makes  a  calculation  using  well- 
known,  established  data,  the  value  of  this  product,  based  upon 
its  chemical  composition,  would  reach  forty  millions  of  dollars 
for  the  Empire.  If  one  were  to  consider  only  the  fertilizing 
value  of  its  constituents,  this  more  than  represents  the  market 
value  of  the  residuum,  as  it  is  now  recognized.  Under  these 
circumstances  it  becomes  evident  that  the  tiller  or  farmer  of  the 
United  States  makes  a  great  mistake  in  not  recognizing  what  he 
has  within  his  reach. 

Siloing  Residuum  Cossettes. 

Silos  for  reduc-  It  is  possible,  under  most  circumstances,  to  consume  entirely 
ing  cossettes.  the  residuum  cossettes  of  an  average  beet-sugar  factory  immedi- 
ately: that  is  to  say,  to  consume  them  in  their  fresh  condition 
as  they  leave  the  cossette  presses.  This,  from  many  standpoints, 
is  very  fortunate.-  In  the  first  place,  the  transportation  of  the 
residuum  means  a  large  increase  of  work  for  animals  and  indi- 
viduals occupied  in  agricultural  pursuits,  during  the  autumn,  at 
the  very  time  when  crops  are  harvested,  and  many  farm  duties, 
such  as  ploughing  of  the  land,  etc.,  should  be  thoroughly  at- 
tended to. 


SILOS    FOR    REDUCING   COSSETTES.  157 

The  factories  working  under  the  best  arrangement  generally 
have  a  number  of  oxen  to  feed,  and  it  is  well  to  have  a  deter- 
mined amount  of  diffusion  cossettes  placed  in  silos  at  the  fac- 
tory. Such  silos  are  usually  of  the  very  best  types. 

In  general,  our  changeable  American  winters  are  disadvan- 
tageous to  beet-residuum  conservation,  and  attention  to  its 
proper  preservation  is  of  greater  importance  than  in  Europe. 
When  building  a  silo,  the  very  best  material  should  be  used; 
and  as  there  is  considerable  lateral  and  vertical  pressure,  the 
side-walls  should  be  sufficiently  thick  to  offer  the  desired  re- 
sistance; corners  should  be  filled  in  with  triangular  or  rounded 
bricks. 

For  many  years  it  was  argued  that  diffusion  pulps  could  not 
be  kept  in  silos  lined  with  bricks;  experiments  have  shown 
such  theories  to  be  erroneous.  Cossettes  remaining  for  five 
months  in  silos  thus  constricted  lost  only  8.9  per  cent,  of  their 
dry  substances. 

It  is  customary  to  pile  the  residuum  cossettes  in  carefully- 
constructed  ditches  lined  or  not  with  masonry  and  cement. 
There  are  advantages  especially  to  be  derived  by  the  use  of 
elongated  silos,  so  that  the  portion  exposed  to  the  air  during 
their  opening  shall  be  as  small  as  possible  in  order  to  reduce  to 
a  minimum  the  amount  that  will  subsequently  rot  through  oxi- 
dation. The  dimensions,  such  as  length,  depth,  etc.,  as  recom- 
mended by  various  recognized  experts,  are  extremely  variable. 

As  the  most  desirable  types  of  silos  for  residuum  beet  pulps 
are  expensive,  they  are  not  within  the  reach  of  the  average 
farmer.  When  beyond  a  certain  size  they  must  be  cement-lined. 

Pellet  and  Lelavandier  recommend  that  the  length  be  75  feet, 
width  12  feet,  and  depth  about  4  feet.  These  dimensions  vary 
with  the  conditions  one  may  have  to  contend  with.  As  to  the 
depth,  there  are  no  difficulties  in  the  way,  provided  the  soil  is 
not  damp.  It  is  not  desirable  to  reach  a  depth  where  sub-strata 
water  currents  may  be  met.  The  other  arguments  that  may  be 
brought  forward  are  based  mainly  upon  the  various  conditions 
that  different  environments  create.  It  is  very  exceptional, 
however,  that  the  depth  of  silos  exceeds  six  feet.  Sometimes 
very  deep  silos,  say  9  feet,  give  good  results;  the  pulp  then 
eliminates  considerable  water  by  its  own  weight. 


158      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

In  certain  cases,  the  size  is  regulated  so  that  a  wagon  may 
turn  upon  itself  in  the  silo,  which  calls  for  a  width  of  at  least  15 
feet.  In  agricultural  attempts  at  siloing  this  width  is  frequently 
reduced  to  three  feet.  The  width  of  the  silo  must  vary  with 
circumstances;  if  too  great,  its  covering  would  offer  some  diffi- 
culty. However,  the  width  should  never  be  less  than  that  of 
an  average  cart. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  bottom  of  the  silos  be  paved  in 
such  a  way  that  there  shall  be  two-thirds  of  an  inch  per  yard 
slant  from  the  entrance  to  the  exit,  with  the  view  of  facilitating 
the  flow  of  water  that  runs  off  from  the  cossettes.  In  certain 
cases  it  has  been  found  that  this  slant  should  be  double,  thus 
permitting  the  flow  from  the  right  as  well  as  the  left.  Under 
these  circumstances  there  is  no  deposit  of  water  at  the  bottom  of 
the  silo,  and  stagnant  water  of  any  kind  would  soon  contaminate 
the  mass  of  the  residuum.  Sometimes  it  has  been  found  an 
advantage  to  carry  off  the  water  filtration  by  certain  drains;  it 
has  also  been  proposed  to  allow  this  water  to  collect  in  special 
wells,  filled  with  stones  or  other  material,  from  which,  when  the 
occasion  presents  itself,  it  may  be  pumped  out.  On  the  other 
hand,  some  experts  advocate  the  building  of  these  silos  on 
porous  soil. 

Complaints  respecting  characteristic  odors  of  butter  made 
from  milk  of  pulp-fed  cows,  refer  to  siloed  pulp.  The  residuum 
has  become  acid  and  undergone  certain  organic  changes  during 
its  keeping,  due  frequently  to  the  contamination  caused  by 
badly  drained  silos.  It  is  important  to  call  attention  to  the 
fact,  that  the  drainage-water  does  not  contain  more  than  a  slight 
fraction  of  the  nourishing  elements  of  the  cossettes;  its  compo- 
sition, according  to  Vivien,  is  nitric  elements  .0020,  carbohy- 
drates .0270,  potassic  substances  .0006,  various  mineral  sub- 
stances .0052,  water  and  acetic  acid  ,9818. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  bottom  paving  of  a  silo  materially 
helps  the  conservation  of  the  siloed  cossettes,  and  experience 
has  shown  that  for  a  silo  of  average  dimensions  all  lateral  walls, 
brick  or  otherwise,  are  unnecessary,  as  they  render  only  a  very 
secondary  service,  mainly  so  when  in  especially  plastic  soils. 

Herzfeld  says  that  the  slope  of  the  silos  is  of  secondary  im- 


FILLING    SILOS    WITH    BEET    COSSETTES.  159 

portance,  and  that  the  transformations  that  occur  in  the  mass 
being  kept  depend  mainly  upon  the  degree  of  dryness  of  the 
products  upon  leaving  presses. 

On  the  upper  level  of  the  silos  it  has  frequently  been  found 
that  certain  economical  advantages  may  be  derived  by  the  in- 
troduction of  small  cars,  of  the  Decauville  type  for  example, 
traveling  over  the  silos  on  narrow  gauge  tracks.  This  arrange- 
ment allows  one  to  carry  the  residuum  cossettes  rapidly  and 
under  very  economical  conditions  from  the  factory  to  the  ditch 
or  silo  in  which  they  are  to  be  kept  for  a  period  of  months. 

Silos  should  be  filled  during  cold  weather  and  the  filling  of  Filling  silos  with 
each  silo  should  not  last  more  than  three  days.  In  our  climate  beet  cossettes. 
the  beet-sugar  campaign  frequently  commences  before  frost  sets 
in,  so  that  the  filling  would  take  place  at  the  wrong  period;  it 
would  be  better  at  first  to  feed  direct  to  cattle.  Farmers  should 
not  forget  that  filling  during  warm  weather  means  very  inferior 
fodder  later  in  the  season.  Care  to  have  the  mass  of  pulp  per- 
fectly uniform,  so  as  to  prevent  air  being  imprisoned,  is  very 
essential,  as  its  influence  is  very  destructive.  It  may  be  com- 
pressed as  much  as  possible  with  the  back  of  the  spade  or  other 
flat  instrument  used  in  filling.  Tramping  upon  the  residuum 
by  walking  a  horse  or  cow  over  the  product  during  filling  is  a 
very  common  custom,  and  covering  the  bottom  of  the  silo  with 
several  inches  of  chopped  straw  is  a  good  practice  the  advant- 
ages of  which  are  numerous.  Alternate  layers  of  pulp  and  straw 
are  to  be  recommended  only  in  certain  cases.  The  writer  is 
rather  in  favor  of  alternate  layers  of  salt  and  residuum.  One 
man's  labor  for  filling  and  emptying  a  silo  of  5  ton  capacity  is 
sufficient. 

Silos  are  generally  open  on  top.  Experience  has  shown, 
however,  that  advantages  are  to  be  derived  from  resorting  to  a 
covering  of  at  least  two  feet  of  earth,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
action  of  air  and  putrefaction.  When  crevices  open,  due  to 
the  settling  of  the  mass,  they  should  be  closed  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. 

The  cossettes  are  placed  in  silos  so  that  the  top  (we  refer  to 
the  portion  above  ground)  shall  form  slanting  angles  of  about 
two  feet,  which  will  materially  contribute  towards  pressing  the 


160  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

mass  of  matter  beneath.  The  slanting  sides  above  ground 
should  be  gradually  covered  with  earth,  the  latter  being  beaten 
down  with  care.  After  an  interval  of  several  days,  this  outer 
covering  being  welF  settled,  another  layer  of  clay  is  added  under 
the  same  conditions. 

Various  coverings  for  the  top  have  been  suggested,  such  as 
defecated  scums,  ashes,  etc.,  but  earth  seems  to  be  the  best  of  all. 
If  proper  attention  be  not  given  to  the  question  of  covering, 
putrefaction  will  continue  from  the  surface  to  a  depth  of  two 
feet  during  a  severe  winter;  but  if  properly  coveied,  the  pulp 
may  be  found  in  an  excellent  condition  two  inches  from  the 
surface.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  some  of  our  farmers  have  used 
straw  instead  of  earth;  this  is  the  very  worst  material  they 
could  select  for  the  purpose.  Heavy  weights  on  the  top  have 
some  advantage,  but  the  best  of  all,  as  before  mentioned,  is 
earth;  this  can  be  several  feet  in  thickness,  and  its  weight  upon 
the  pulp  will  be  all  that  is  desired. 

Experience  has  shown  that  when  the  silos  slant  from  bottom 
to  top,  considerable  advantages  are  found  as  far  as  the  keeping 
qualities  of  the  residuum  are  concerned.  Silos  when  filled 
settle  about  10  per  cent. ,  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  settling 
has  considerable  importance,  for  the  simple  reason  that  a  given 
volume  of  the  product,  before  and  after,  means  an  economy  as 
regards  the  cubical  contents  of  the  silos. 

It  is  very  advisable,  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results  in  cos- 
sette  keeping,  especially  during  the  period  when  they  are 
withdrawn  from  the  silos,  to  sub-divide  the  various  chambers  in 
which  the  product  is  kept  into  several  compartments.  These 
separations  are  made  at  different  points  in  the  direction  of  the 
least  dimension  by  suitable  walls  of  stone  or  earth,  in  such  a  way 
that  even  when  one  of  these  divisions  is  entirely  open  it  in  no 
way  interferes  with  the  adjoining  one.  Under  these  circum- 
stances it  is  possible  to  arrange  so  that  the  supply  for  the  day 
may  be  sufficient  to  meet  any  possible  emergency,  and  in  no 
way  have  an  influence,  as  far  as  atmospheric  action  is  con- 
cerned, upon  the  product  being  kept  in  the  adjoining  section. 
Transformation  If  one  leaves  fresh  cossettes  exposed  to  the  air  there  follows  a 
during  siloing,  putrefaction  after  a  very  short  time.  Notwithstanding  this 


TRANSFORMATION    DURING   SILOING.  161 

fact,  very  often  when  the  factory  method  of  washing  does  not 
allow  the  construction  of  any  special  silos,  and  when  the  farmers 
refuse  to  undertake  it,  the  product  is  simply  thrown  in  piles  and 
left  exposed  to  the  air.  Under  these  conditions  it  becomes  evi- 
dent that  the  factories  must  lose,  or  in  other  words  make  a  sac- 
rifice, which  under  better  management  would  have  been  unnec- 
essary, of  a  product  that  enters  very  materially  into  the  financial 
profits  of  the  season,  when  the  entire  bulk  of  the  sugar  campaign 
is  considered. 

This  organic  transformation,  or  putrefaction,  even  during 
siloing,  may  represent  a  sacrifice  of  30  to  50  centimetres  in 
depth,  meaning  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  total  product. 
It  becomes  evident  that  the  essentials  for  the  proper  preservation 
of  these  cossettes  consist  in  keeping  out  the  air  and  rain.  This 
distinctive  action  of  rain  and  air  increases  with  the  period  of 
keeping,  for  the  reason  that  the  cells  of  the  residuum  thus 
stored  become,  with  time,  more  and  more  open.  The  rain  enter- 
ing carries  away  a  large  percentage  of  the  nourishing  elements. 

Do  what  one  may,  there  always  follow  numerous  transforma- 
tions in  the  silos;  there  arises  a  fermentation  in  the  mass  of 
all,  or  nearly  all,  of  the  organic  substances,  such  as  the 
non-nitrogenous,  which  are  partly  converted  into  lactic  acid. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  cossettes  are  possessed  of  a  de- 
cidedly acid  reaction  and  may  contain,  according  to  Morgen, 
more  than  4.7  per  cent,  of  their  dry  substances  as  organic  acid, 
calculated  upon  a  basis  of  lactic  acid.  This  apparently  ab- 
normal quantity  has  very  much  less  influence  on  the  digestion 
of  animals  than  one  might  be  led  to  suppose.  They  give,  on 
the  contrary,  a  rather  agreeable  characteristic  sour  taste,  to  which 
cattle  soon  become  accustomed,  and  furthermore  they  appear  to 
eat  the  product  with  great  avidity. 

But,  it  is  to  be  noticed,  that  in  order  that  the  cossettes  may 
undergo  this  lactic  fermentation  to  the  best  advantage,  they 
should  reach  a  temperature  of  very  nearly  40°  C.  [104°  F.], 
without  any  supplementary  heat  other  than  that  found  in  the 
siloed  mass,  otherwise  there  would  followr  an  objectionable  acid 
fermentation,  under  which  circumstances,  instead  of  lactic  acid, 
there  would  be  found  a  micro-organism  known  as  mycoderma 
11 


162      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

aceti,  that  would  soon  show  its  activity,  resulting  in  the  forma- 
tion of  acetic  acid,  for  which  live  stock  in  general  have  a  distaste. 
Certain  cattle  absolutely  refuse  it  under  any  and  every  circum- 
stance, and  the  product  then  has  absolutely  no  commercial  or 
feeding  value.  • 

As  the  temperature  in  the  silos  is  considerable,  it  should  be 
measured  with  a  thermometer  and  controlled.  Experiments 
have  been  made  to  collect  some  data  regarding  temperature  in 
silos  rilled  with  two  kinds  of  pulp,  and  the  difference  in  heat 
evolved  after  some  time  was  remarkable.  A  comparatively 
high  temperature  is  generally  desirable,  for  the  reason  that  it 
shows  that  fermentation  has  commenced. 

As  regards  the  nitrogenous  substances,  they  also  undergo 
most  important  transformations.  They  tend  to  become  very 
simple  compounds.  For  example,  the  albuminoids  are  trans- 
formed into  amides.  Morgen  thus  finds  in  the  analysis  of 
soured  beet  cossettes  24.03  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  in  the  form  of 
amides.  It  must  not  be  overlooked  that  the  average  for  these 
amides  for  the  entire  mass  was  not  more  than  8.08  per  cent. 

On  the  other  hand,  pressed  fresh  residuum  cossettes  do  not 
contain  even  the  slightest  trace  of  these  substances,  which  is  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  they  rapidly  diffuse  into  the  juices  dur- 
ing the  process  of  diffusion  in  the  battery. 

As  the  most  recent  investigations  show  that  amides  have  the 
same  nutritive  value  as  carbohydrates,  they  are  consequently 
very  inferior  to  the  nutritive  equivalents  of  albuminoids,  from 
which  they  are  derived.  Under  these  circumstances  there  is 
evidently  a  loss,  at  the  expense  of  the  nitrogenous  elements. 
There  is,  furthermore,  another  loss,  which  this  time  is  very 
direct.  During  siloing  the  cossettes  settle  and  allow  the  liquid 
in  suspension  to  run  off,  carrying  with  it  a  considerable  percent- 
age of  substances  that  have  important  nutritive  value. 

In  all  silos  it  necessarily  follows  that  during  the  fermentation 
the  hydrocarbons  undergo  alterations,  and  there  will  be  formed 
an  acid  of  the  fatty  series  and  also  carbonic  acid. 

Morgen  has  shown  that  in  the  gases  that  appear  to  be  im- 
prisoned in  the  upper  layers  of  the  cossettes,  there  exists  3.5  per 
cent,  of  anhydrous  carbonic  acid.  Under  these  circumstances 


TRANSFORMATION    DURING    SILOING. 


163 


one  obtains  a  mass  that  is  grayish  in  color,  with  here  and  there 
certain  spots  of  more  or  less  blackish  appearance,  pasty  in  tex- 
ture, and  after  a  reasonable  period  no  longer  possessing  the 
characteristics  of  the  original  pressed  residuum,  all  its  primitive 
structure,  organic,  etc.,  having  disappeared. 

The  principal  centers  for  change  in  silos  are  along  the  sides 
and  in  corners;  and  no  well-built  silo  should  have  angular 
corners,  otherwise  a  thorough  cleaning  when  emptied  would  be 
impossible.  The  shape  of  a  silo  has  consequently  an  important 
influence  upon  the  keeping  of  the  cossettes;  most  experts  say 
that  the  sides  should  be  vertical,  so  that  there  will  be  a  regular 
pressure  of  the  pulp  by  its  own  weight.  The  writer  much 
doubts  if  vertical  sides  accomplish  all  that  is  desired;  an  in- 
verted truncated  pyramid  would  be  better.  No  experiments 
have  been  made  in  this  direction,  so  it  should  not  be  attempted 
unless  there  be  in  advance  some  certainty  as  to  results. 

According  to  Liebscher,  fermentation  diminishes  after  the 
sixth  day  of  siloing,  and  when  the  fifteenth  day  is  reached  the 
temperature  of  the  mass  undergoes  little  or  no  change,  and  is 
about  the  same  as  that  of  the  ground  in  which  the  ditch  has 
been  made.  These  transformations,  as  regards  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  products,  are  shown  in  the  table  which 
follows,  as  given  by  Maercker: 

EARLY  CHEMICAL  CHANGES  DURING  SILOING  (MAERCKER). 


Constituents. 

Fresh  pressed 
cossettes. 

Dry 
matter. 

Soured 
cossettes. 

Dry 

matter. 

Water  

89  77  per  cent 

88  5*^  per  cent 

Dry  matter  

1023        " 

100  00  per  cent 

11  48       " 

100  00  per  cent 

\sh 

0  58       " 

5  67        " 

1  09        " 

95         " 

Fatty  substance  
Cellulose  

0.05 
2  3J        " 

0.49 
23  36        " 

Oil 
28         " 

0.95 
24  39        " 

Nitrogenous  substances. 

6.32 

61.78 

6.41        " 

55.84 

From  this  data  one  may  conclude  that  during  the  keeping  of 
the  residuum  its  percentage  of  dry  substances,  such  as  ash,  fatty 
constituents,  cellulose  and  nitrogenous  elements,  is  materially 


164 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


increased.  Whilst  this  increase  is  true  as  regards  the  fatty  con- 
stituents (it  is  to  be  noticed  that  albuminoids  under  certain  con- 
ditions, through  decomposition,  can  give  fatty  constituents), 
this  phenomenon  is  very  misleading  as  far  as  the  other  com- 
pounds are  concerned,  for  the  simple  reason  that  there  is  a  cer- 
tain water  percentage  which  has  been  lessened,  and  there  con- 
sequently follows  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  dry  substances. 
It  is  well  to  understand  that  there  has  not  been  a  corresponding 
loss  of  these  dry  constituents,  for  whatever  may  be  the  loss  of 
these  it  is  never  proportional  to  the  losses  of  watery  vapor, 
whatever  they  may  be.  While  the  loss  of  water  may  be  40 
per  cent.,  it  does  not  necessarily  carry  with  it  40  per  cent, 
of  different  compounds  forming  the  actual  constituents  of  the 
cossettes  proper,  which  fact  may  be  noticed  by  the  relatively  in- 
creased nutritive  value  of  the  material.  The  fact  is,  that  the 
actual  anal}rsis  of  soured  cossettes  shows  the  material  advantage 
of  submitting  the  fresh  product  to  some  siloing.  Gradually, 
as  the  period  of  their  keeping  progresses,  this  phenomenon,  or 
transformation,  so  to  speak,  becomes  more  and  more  pro- 
nounced, as  the  analysis  of  Petermann  evidently  proved. 

CHEMICAL  CHANGES  DUEING  PROLONGED  SILOING  (PETERMANN). 


Constituents. 

Cossettes  after  8 
months'  keeping. 

Dry 

matter. 

Cossettes  after  2 
years'  keeping. 

Dry 
matter. 

Water             .  . 

87  8  per  cent 

83  98  per  cent 

Dry  matter  
Ash       

12.2 
1  02      " 

100.00  per  cent. 
8  36        " 

16.02 
2  96        " 

100.00  per  cent. 
18  48       " 

Fatty  substances 
Cellulose  

0.08      " 
2  67      " 

0.65 
21  89        " 

0.74        '• 
5.06        " 

4.62 
31.59        " 

Albuminoids  .  .  . 

J.OO      " 

8.2 

1.83 

11.42 

(Organic  nitrogen) 
0.16  per  cent. 

(Organic  nitrogen) 
0.29  per  cent. 

Carbohydrates  . 

7.43      " 

60.9 

5.43 

33.89        " 

Unfortunately  the  keeping  in  silos  of  a  product  such  as  this 
necessarily  means  a  considerable  loss,  that  in  certain  cases 
amounts  to  from  40  to  45  per  cent.,  do  what  one  may,  and  one 
must  make  the  best  of  these  conditions.  Notwithstanding  the 


TRANSFORMATION    DURING    SILOING.  165 

fact  that  the  residuum  may  be  kept  for  a  longer  period  and  may 
undergo  considerable  organic  changes,  it  may  always  be  utilized 
to  advantage  in  cattle  feeding. 

During  the  Franco-Prussian  war  in  1870,  it  was  to  be  noticed 
that  in  Germany  there  was  a  marked  decrease  in  the  number  of 
cattle,  and  for  a  time  there  were  certain  fears  entertained. that  it 
would  be  impossible  to  find  means  of  getting  rid  of  the  enor- 
mous quantity  of  residuum  cossettes  that  were  left  after  the 
sugar  campaign.  These  arguments  were  very  misleading,  for 
the  simple  reason  that  the  product  was  properly  siloed  not  only 
by  the  farmers  but  by  the  manufacturers,  and  while  practically 
only  used  in  some  cases  two  years  afterwards,  extraordinary 
benefits  were  derived  from  this  practice.  The  total  number  of 
head  of  cattle  soon  became  normal,  but  as  the  consumption  at 
first  was  comparatively  small  there  was  necessarily  an  increased 
demand  for  fertilizers,  which  consequently  brought  to  light  the 
possible  fertilizing  value  of  this  residuum. 

Dohrn  has  also  kept  this  material  for  a  year  and  a  half,  and 
was  perfectly  satisfied  with  the  results  he  subsequently  obtained 
in  feeding. 

Unfortunately  these  organic  losses  during  siloing  are  not  the 
only  ones  to  be  considered.  The  analysis  shown  above  would 
lead  one  to  believe  that  there  has  resulted  a  certain  amelioration, 
which  in  reality  does  not  exist.  On  the  contrary,  digestion 
experiments  according  to  the  methods  of  Stutzer,  while  they 
do  not  prove  very  much,  claim  to  show  that  there  is  a  mistake 
in  supposing  that  the  siloed  cossettes  are  improved  after  a  pro- 
longed keeping. 

Experiments  by  Morgen  show  that  the  digestibility  of  nitro- 
genous substances  is  83.2  per  cent,  for  the  soured  cossettes  as 
compared  with  76.3  per  cent,  for  the  fresh  cossettes.  Saillard's 
experiments  show  that  the  digestibility  for  the  siloed  cossettes 
is  only  73  per  cent.  But  all  these  investigations  prove  nothing 
as  regards  the  condition  in  which  the  nitrogenous  substances 
exist  in  the  residuum,  for  the  simple  reason  that  a  certain 
amount  of  these  constituents  consists  of  ammonia,  the  nutri- 
tive value  of  which  may  be  considered  nil.  Regarding  these 
losses  different  authorities,  adopting  numerous  modes  of  siloing, 
have  arrived  at  very  different  results. 


166      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

The  variation  of  these  data  may  be  mainly  explained,  especi- 
ally in  the  case  of  Maercker,  by  the  fact  that  in  these  observa- 
tions all  the  decomposed  cossettes  have  been  deducted  from  the 
calculations  as  having  no  feeding  value.  Under  these  condi- 
tions there  is  an  important  margin  of  variation  that  is  open  to 
discussion. 

The  experience  of  Liebscher  shows  that  it  is  possible,  from  a 
practical  standpoint,  to  reduce  these  losses  very  materially  by 
certain  precautionary  measures.  Herewith  are  his  observations 
for  a  period  of  keeping  lasting  108  days: 

Stone  silos  with  stone  covering,  total  loss  7.3  per  cent. 

Stone  silos  with  earth  covering,  6.5  per  cent. 

Cemented  silos  with  stone  covering,  6.7  per  cent. 

Cemented  silos  with  earth  covering,  5.2  per  cent. 

It  is  difficult  to  reconcile  this  data  with  the  assertion  of 
Maercker,  who  declares  that  with  the  best-arranged  silos  these 
losses  cannot  be  brought  below  20  per  cent.  The  truth  is  to  be 
found  between  the  two  extremes  of  these  and  other  authorities. 

It  has  been  recommended  that,  in  order  to  diminish  the 
losses,  one  alternate  in  the  silos  successive  layers  of  other  sub- 
stances than  cossettes,  so  that  there  follow  in  regular  order  hay 
and  chopped  straw,  or  other  forage  capable  of  absorbing  the 
liquid  running  from  the  residuum  and  thereby  preventing  these 


According  to  Rabbetge,  it  is  desirable  to  mix  with  the  cos- 
settes 5  per  cent,  of  chopped  straw.  Von  Ehrenstein  declares 
that  besides  the  virtue  the  straw  has  of  absorbing  the  liquids,  it 
possesses  the  advantage  of  undergoing  a  transformation  in  the 
silos  which  in  reality  increases  its  digestibility. 

Pellet  and  Lelavandier  have  demonstrated  that  besides  the 
advantages  of  straw  just  mentioned,  it  penetrates  the  mass  and 
becomes  rapidly  heated,  and  under  these  circumstances  attains 
within  a  very  short  time  the  requisite  temperature  for  satis- 
factory fermentation.  They  recommend  that  at  the  bottom  of 
the  silos  there  be  placed  about  one  inch  of  chopped  straw,  then 
three  to  five  inches  of  cossettes,  then  one  inch  of  straw,  etc. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  a  German  authority  declares  on  the 
contrary  that  the  losses  are  greater  with  straw  than  without  it, 


SURFACE    SILOING.  167 

and  this  assertion  seems  to  be  endorsed  by  many  of  the  leading 
authorities  who  state  that  with  straw  in  the  silos  the  mass 
undergoes  considerable  loss  of  dry  substances. 

Mixing  of  pulp  with  moJasses  is  practiced  by  some  farmers; 
the  sugar  thus  introduced  is  soon  converted  into  alcohol  and 
carbonic  acid.  The  fermentation  is  very  active  and  must  be 
watched.  Excess  of  alcohol  in  pulps  may  in  certain  cases  be 
very  objectionable.  Just  whether  the  sugar  added  does  facili- 
tate keeping  remains  to  be  demonstrated. 

Other  investigators  have  endeavored  to  establish  a  very  radi- 
cal method.  They  attribute  all  these  losses  to  fermentation, 
and  attempt  to  do  away  with  it  entirely.  They  apparently 
justly  declare  that  such  losses  are  not  justifiable,  even  when 
making  allowance  for  the  advantages  gained,  such  as  giving  to 
the  cossettes  all  the  qualities  of  taste  that  cattle  seem  to  relish. 
They  go  so  far  as  to  propose  to  mix  the  residuum  with  some 
antiseptic,  such  as  salicylic  acid  or  borax  (^  oz.  of  borax  per 
100  Ibs.  cossettes).  The  results  obtained  were  no  more  encour- 
aging than  those  realized  by  the  addition  of  lime  or  salt,  which 
has  the  opposite  object  in  view,  that  is  to  say  to  actuate  the 
fermentation.  Lime  helps  the  fermentation  by  the  formation 
of  butyric  acid,  which  gives  to  the  cossettes,  however,  a  disa- 
greeable flavor. 

All  chemical  substances  added  to  cossettes  have  but  the  effect 
of  putting  them  into  such  condition  as  will  cause  them  to  be 
rejected  by  the  animals  to  which  they  are  fed. 

It  may  be  admitted  upon  general  principles  that  the  cossette  Surface  siloing, 
residuums  will  be  possessed  of  keeping  powers  provided  the 
water  they  contain  can  drain  off,  and  that  the  product  be  well 
protected  from  the  rain  and  variations  of  the  exterior  air.  A 
very  simple  arrangement  for  surface  siloing  is  shown  in  Fig.  10. 
On  each  side  of  the  pile  are  suitable  ditches  that  carry  off  the 
dripping  water  from  the  moist  pulp;  the  earth  covering  is 
taken  from  the  ditches.  A  and  B  show  layers  of  straw  pro- 
jecting beyond  the  sides,  and  these  act  as  drains  from  the  in- 
terior. 

The  system  of  surface  storing  of  beet  cossettes  as  it  exists  at 
Alvarado,  in  connection  with  the  silos  and  the  dairy,  is  fully 


168 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


described  in  a  bulletin  of  the  California  experiment  station. 
There  is  a  large  trestle  that  carries  the  beet  residuum  from  the 
factory  and  drops  it  into  the  silo  below. 

"  The  silo  is  460  feet  long,  80  feet  wide  and  8  feet  deep.     It 
is  floored  and  sided  with  two-inch  planks,  and  the  sloping  sides 


FIG.  10. 


Simple  Style  of  Surface  Siloing. 

are  supported  by  heavy  posts,  set  in  the  ground  and  braced  with 
strong  timbers.  Three  tracks  run  through  the  silo,  one  on  each 
side  and  one  in  the  centre,  on  which  a  car  is  drawn  by  a  horse 
to  carry  the  pulp  to  the  cattle  barns  several  rods  distant. " 

Another  silo  built  on  the  same  principle  is  shown  in  Fig.  11. 
This  may  be  made  of  the  roughest  sort  of  lumber,  and  of  any 

FIG.  11. 


Siirface  Siloing  Using  Lumber. 

size  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  feeder.  This  silo  is  12  feet 
wide,  30  feet  long  and  6  feet  deep,  and  will  hold  about  two 
car-loads  of  cossettes. 

Figure  12  represents  a  simple  and  cheap  way  of  constructing 
a  silo  by  excavating  a  passage  through,  or  in  a  hill.  "  The  bot- 
toms should  be  planked  in  all  such  cases  and  means  provided 


SURFACE    SILOING. 


169 


whereby  the  water  draining  from  the  cossettes  may  be  easily  and 
quickly  carried  off.  The  planks  should,  therefore,  set  well  up 
from  the  ground  and  be  far  enough  apart  to  leave  a  crack  be- 
tween them  after  they  have  swelled  with  the  contact  with  moist- 
ure from  the  cossettes."  This  silo  may  be  made  of  any  desired 
size.  One  used  by  a  well-known  feeder  is  600  feet  long,  50  feet 
deep,  20  feet  wide  at  the  base  and  80  feet  wide  at  the  top.  The 
bottom  only  is  planked,  and  has  gutterways  under  the  floor,  so 
as  to  thoroughly  drain  the  cossettes.  The  silo  is  filled  by 
means  of  carriers  bringing  the  residuum  directly  from  the  sugar 
factory  to  the  upper  part  of  the  silo  when  the  carrier  is  dumped. 
In  the  small  silo  shown  in  the  figure  the  filling  can  be  done  by 
driving  the  wagon  alongside  the  top  of  the  silo  and  shoveling 
the  cossettes  into  it.  Satisfactory  results  have  been  obtained  in 
France  with  the  wood-built  silo  shown  in  Fig.  13. 


FIG.  12. 


-£& 


Silo  Formed  by  Excavating  Hillside. 


Just  within  what  limits  this  is  suitable  to  our  cold  climate 
experiments  alone  can  determine;  on  the  other  hand,  for  Cali- 
fornia, the  method  would  be  excellent.  Silos  of  this  type  are 
90  to  100  feet  long  by  12  to  16  feet  wide  and  3  feet  6  inches  in 
height.  The  bottom  is  made  of  stones  placed  on  end,  with 
sufficient  grade  to  carry  off  the  water  from  the  mass  of  pulp 
into  lateral  drains  communicating  with  a  special  manure  pit. 
Wooden  posts,  seven  inches  square,  penetrating  the  ground  at 
least  12  inches,  are  placed  vertically  at  intervals  of  six  feet;  these 
are  held  in  position  horizontally  by  iron  bars  J  inch  in  diameter, 
which  overcome  any  lateral  pressure. 


170 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


The  sides  of  the  silo  consist  of  boards  12  x  1  with  an  interval 
of  one  inch  between  each,  and  all  should  have  a  thick  coating 
of  tar.  To  facilitate  filling  and  assure  keeping  the  mass  in 
good  condition,  the  silo  is  divided  in  two  parts  by  a  partition  of 
posts  and  boards.  The  silo  may  be  filled  by  use  of  a  wheel- 


Surface-Built  Silos  for  Beet  fulp  as  used  in  France. 

barrow  from  a  plank  slanting  up  from  the  ground;  the  iron 
braces  are  placed  in  position  gradually  during  filling,  and  with- 
drawn as  the  silo  is  emptied.  The  capacity  of  a  silo  of  this 
type  is  300  tons.  It  is  claimed  that  the  loss  during  keeping  is 

FIG.  H. 


"Dug-Out  »  Type  of  Silo. 

very  slight,  as  excessive  fermentation  is  not  to  be  dreaded, 
owing  to  the  facilities  offered  for  drainage  between  the  boards 
and  at  the  bottom. 

A  curious  custom  of  some  farmers  is  not  to  cover  the  pulp, 
but  simply  to  keep  the  upper  surface  level;  the  entire  mass  is 


SURFACE    SILOING. 


171 


then  used  just  as  it  is,  after  having  been  exposed  to  the  air  for 
a  period  of  months. 

Silos  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground  are  very  variable  in 
shape,  size,  etc.     A  very  simple  dug-out  type  that  has  met 


FIG.  15. 


Horizontal  Section  of  Underground  Silo  for  Beet  Pulp. 

with  considerable  practical  success  is  shown  in  Fig.   14.     The 
drainage  consists   simply  of   a  few  small   stones.      The  water 

FIG.  16. 


Vertical  Section  of  Underground  Silo  for  Beet  Pulp. 

from  the  portion  above  ground  drips  through  the  straw  layers  A 
and  B  into  the  side  ditches  from  which  has  been  taken  the 
earth  covering. 


172      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC, 

A  most  interesting,  well  constructed  type  of  underground  silo 
of  4,000  cubic  meters  capacity  intended  for  distillery  beet  resi- 
duum was  seen  by  the  writer  at  the  Ferme  de  la  Briche,  France. 
The  refuse  is  carried  from  rnash  tubs  in  cars  C  (Fig.  15),  in 
which  it  is  mixed  with  chopped  straw,  hay,  etc.  A  movable 
partition  P  (19.68  X  11.48  feet),  having  the  exact  dimensions  of 
the  silo's  cross  section,  is  mounted  on  wheels  and  placed  a  short 
distance  from  the  end  wall.  The  intervening  space  is  filled 
with  closely  packed  pulp,  thus  preventing  fermentation,  and  a 
layer  of  10  inches  of  earth  covers  the  top.  The  partition  is 
moved  backward,  and  the  foregoing  operations  are  repeated.  It 
is  said  that  beet  pulp,  under  such  conditions,  will  keep  for 
years;  it  is  taken  from  the  silo  in  vertical  slices. 


CHAPTER  II. 
Dried  Residuum  Cossettes. 

UPON  general  principles  fresh  or  siloed  cossettes,  considered  as 
a  forage,  entail  certain  complications  in  connection  with  their 
feeding,  keeping,  handling,  etc.,  hence  there  must  necessarily 
be  some  advantages  in  their  drying. 

The  first  really  serious  experiments  made  in  this  direction  Early  efforts, 
were  those  of  1878,  by  Blossfeld,  who  at  that  period  had  con- 
ducted quite  a  propaganda  for  the  encouragement  of  the  idea 
of  cossette-drying  that  he  had  been  expounding,  and  the  neces- 
sity of  discovering  some  practical  means  for  overcoming  the 
many  difficulties  involved.  This  idea  was  not  well  under- 
stood by  the  German  farmers  and  sugar  manufacturers  until 
1883,  when  a  prize  of  fifteen  thousand  marks  ($3,750)  f or  Prjze  for  a  ,jryer 
some  practical  solution  of  this  question  was  proposed.  In 
order  to  make  the  question  thoroughly  clear  in  the  eyes  of  those 
interested  in  the  subject  certain  conditions  were  stipulated,  viz. : 
The  dried  pulp  should  contain  only  14  per  cent,  water,  about 
the  same  as  hay — it  should  be  without  any  perceptible  odor, 
and  not  burnt  during  drying;  the  loss  of  nutritive  elements 
should  not  be  more  than  8  per  cent.;  the  expense  must  not  be 
more  than  about  2^  cents  per  100  Ibs.  of  pressed  cossettes  used. 

Buttner  and  Meyer  were  awarded  this  prize,  and  their 
apparatus,  wrhich  has  actually  a  great  practical  value,  wras  the 
starting  point  for  the  realization  of  an  idea  that  has  since  been 
of  considerable  importance  to  the  would-be  feeders  of  this  beet- 
cossette  residuum  the  wrorld  over. 

Since  then  numerous  installations   of  this  plant  have  been    Objections  to 
made,  and  these  continue  to  increase  in  number.     It  must  be     using  dried 
said  that  from  the  start  when  this  dry  product  was  introduced     cossettes- 
upon  the  market,  it  met  with  much  opposition  from  those  who 
had  occasion  to  avail  themselves  of  this  valuable  forage,  and  it 

(173) 


174  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

was  frequently  looked  upon  with  a  certain  misapprehension. 
The  arguments  advanced  showed  that  a  very  indefinite  idea  was 
possessed  by  those  discussing  the  question,  and  for  this  reason 
they  need  not  all  be  mentioned  here. 

It  is  interesting,  however,  to  call  attention  to  the  farmers' 
assertion  that  it  was  paradoxical  to  assert  that  a  handful  of  the 
dry  product  could  have  the  same  nutritive  value  as  a  bucketful 
of  the  moist  substance  from  which  it  was  made.  These  argu- 
ments occasioned  numerous  agricultural  gatherings  at  which 
the  entire  question  was  discussed  upon  a  very  practical  basis. 
The  rural  press  of  the  country  took  up  the  question  and  the 
actual  outcome  has  been  that  dried  cossettes  are  now  con- 
sidered as  a  staple  commodity  upon  the  German  market. 

The  principal       To  Maercker  and  Morgen  is  justly  due  the  credit  of  having  put 
promoters,     aside,  through  their  numerous  publications,  all  the  erroneous 
assertions  of  many  of  the  would-be  scientists  who  attempted  to 
cry  down  this  valuable  product. 

Before  mentioning  exactly  in  what  the  practical  solution  of 
cossette  drying  consists,  it  is  important  to  insist  upon  the 
necessity  of  these  cossette  dryers  producing  a  product  which 
shall  contain  the  greatest  profitable  proportion  of  dry  sub- 
stances; and  from  this  standpoint  one  may  notice  that  since  the 
cossette  desiccating  appliances  were  first  introduced,  the  per- 
centage of  dry  matter  contained  in  the  pressed  cossettes  has 
risen  from  12  per  cent,  to  16  per  cent.,  which  means  that 

Limit  of  press-  there  is  30  per  cent,  less  water  to  be  evaporated  than  there  was 
ing.        formerly,  this  phase  of  the  question  representing  considerable 
fuel  economy. 

In  the  chapter  devoted  to  siloed  cossettes,  wre  discussed  the 
efforts  made  to  reduce  the  water  in  pressed  cossettes  and  conse- 
quently to  increase  the  percentage  of  dry  matter.  The  limit  of 
16  per  cent,  should  not  be  exceeded  for  the  simple  reason  that 
there  would  always  follow  a  considerable  loss  of  dry  substance 
in  the  sweet  water  running  from  the  presses.  No  solution  other 
than  the  customary  pressing  has  been  found. 

When  one  considers  the  enormous  volume  of  cossette  residuum 
leaving  the  average  beet-sugar  factory,  it  will  be  seen  that  it 
would  be  by  no  means  practical  to  run  this  product  through 


HOT    DIFFUSION    FACILITATES    PRESSING.  175 

hydraulic  presses,  as  once  suggested.  With  the  modern  cossette 
presses  there  would  be  no  advantage  in  pushing  this  pressure 
beyond  the  limit  it  now  attains,  when  drying  is  the  object  in 
view,  as  practical  experience  shows  that  when  this  pressure  has 
attained  a  certain  crushing  limit,  drying  them  is  next  to  impos- 
sible, as  the  heated  gases  that  are  in  such  furnaces  cannot  ac- 
complish the  object  in  view.  They  would  carry  with  them 
during  their  circulation  a  large  percentage  of  the  finer  particles 
of  which  the  product  consists. 

Buttner  &  Meyer  some  years  since  forced  the  cossettes  through  Liming  before 
perforated  cylinders  combined  with  a  slanting  spiral  arrange-       drying, 
ment  which  was  in  close  communication  with  another  recept- 
acle containing  milk  of  lime,  in  which  the  residuum  became 
saturated  with  lime.     It  was  subsequently  stramed  before  leav- 
ing the  upper  parts  of  the  cylinder. 

Without  doubt,  lime  has  great  influence  upon  the  cellular 
texture  of  the  beet  slices  being  treated,  and  will  often  permit  a 
greater  percentage  of  water  to  escape;  but  independent  of  certain 
mechanical  complications  that  we  need  not  mention  here,  there 
is  always  danger  of  hardening  the  cossettes.  It  frequently 
happens  that  the  fuel  used  for  the  drying  in  this  appliance  con- 
tains sulphur.  The  gases  of  the  furnaces  will  then  be  saturated 
with  anhydrous  sulphurous  acid,  which,  coming  in  contact  with 
the  lime  of  the  cossettes  during  their  working  in  the  Buttner  & 
Meyer  dryer,  w^ould  result  in  a  certain  calcic  deposit. 

Herzfeld  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  after  a  reasonable 
period  of  keeping,  this  dry  residuum  threw  out  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  contained  almost 
insignificant  traces  of  this  chemical. 

At  the  present  time,  liming  of  residuum  cossettes  has  been 
practically  abandoned,  and  there  remain  now  only  the  natural, 
dry  cossettes,  which  product  is  becoming  yearly  more  and 
more  popular. 

As  the  emptying  of  the  diffusors  of  the  diffusion  battery  may    Hot  diffusion 
now  be  automatically  accomplished,  the  battery  may  be  worked     Jac||ita{es 
at  a  high  temperature.     This  greatly  facilitates  pressing,  as  it  is 
practically  shown  that  cossettes  lose,  during  their  pressing  when 
hot,    a   greater  percentage  of   water  than  when  pressed  cold. 


176  FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

Such  being  the  case  it  becomes  imperative  to  re-heat  this 
residuum  in  the  diffusor,  which  operation  becomes  possible  by 
using  hot  water,  and  to  carry  the  product  as  simply  and  as 
quickly  as  possible  to  the  cossette  presses. 

The  Pfeiffer  compressed-air  mode  for  employing  the  diffusors 
is  certainly  very  practical  in  its  working.  Besides  the  direct 
advantages  of  hot  cossette  pressing,  there  is  a  direct  fuel  econ- 
omy, as  the  residuum  is  introduced  into  the  dryer  in  a  warm 
condition,  resulting  in  that  much  gain  in  the  caloric  which  must 
be  furnished  to  accomplish  the  desired  drying. 

Waste  gases  for  Drying  may  be  most  economically  accomplished  by  using  the 
drying.  gases  escaping  from  the  grates  of  the  boilers,  and  which  com- 
bine with  the  gases  in  the  special  generators.  It  is  claimed 
that  there  is  thus  produced  an  intense  gas  circulation,  which  is 
very  favorable  to  the  residuum  desiccation,  without  danger  of 
cooling  or  any  loss  of  heat.  It  is  claimed  furthermore  that 
during  this  special  drying  the  cossettes  will  not  absorb  any  of 
the  gas  combination,  as  the  water  they  contain  must  increase 
1700  times  in  volume  before  becoming  steam,  and  that  under 
these  circumstances  there  is  created  a  current  of  vapor  sufficiently 
violent  to  prevent  any  direct  contact  between  the  cossettes  and 
the  gas  proper. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  to  properly  utilize  this  lost 
heat  from  the  boilers  would  necessitate  the  building  of  a  very 
large  and  expensive  appliance.  Furthermore,  steam  boilers  are 
rarely  arranged  as  they  should  be,  and  an  enormous  amount  of 
gases  is  always  liberated  from  them  that  cannot  be  utilized,  and 
that  is  unfortunately  supersaturated  with  soot,  their  working, 
moreover,  being  very  irregular. 

The  construction  of  a  special  furnace  for  accomplishing  the 
object  in  view,  is  the  main  point  on  which  our  attention  should 
be  centered.  It  has  been  found  desirable  to  obviate  the  contact 
of  the  gases  with  the  residuum  cossettes,  in  order  to  prevent 
their  contamination.  All  combinations  that  have  thus  far 
been  devised  are  not  very  serviceable  in  their  general  work- 
ing, from  an  economical  standpoint,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  there  always  follows  an  enormous  loss  of  heat  through 
radiation. 


RATIONAL   APPLIANCES   LED    TO    POOR   RESULTS.        177 

It   has   frequently    been   suggested   that  for  the    drying  of    Utilization  of 
cossettes,  the  lost  heat  from  the  various  appliances  of  sugar   lost  h*at  for 
factories  should  be  used.     Investigations  in  this  direction  have 
been  centered  upon  the  utilization  of  the  supposed  latent  heat, 
but  up  to  the  present  time  the  results  obtained  have  been  by  no 
means  encouraging. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  experts  have  denied  the  existence 
of  stored-up  heat  of  evaporation,  because  they  believed  that  in 
order  to  evaporate  the  water  of  the  heated  cossettes  in  the  fur- 
nace it  was  sufficient  to  circulate  air  in  the  drier,  which,  owing 
to  its  natural  hygroscopic  power,  would  become  supercharged 
with  the  watery  vapor.  A  fact  that  has  been  apparently  over- 
looked is  that  a  complete  realization  of  this  phenomenon  would 
have  necessitated  a  supplementary  expenditure  of  caloric. 
Finally,  experiments  were  made  to  utilize  the  caloric  contained 
in  the  water  evaporated,  in  the  same  way  as  this  is  realized  in 
evaporating  appliances,  such  as  triple  and  multiple  effects  as 
used  in  the  sugar  factories.  The  substance  here  dealt  with  is, 
unfortunately,  not  as  fluid  as  is  beet  juice,  and  all  facts  con- 
sidered it  is  difficult  to  arrange  an  apparatus,  or  combination 
of  appliances,  that  would  meet  all  the  numerous  demands  of 
beet  cossette  drying.  The  transfering  of  the  cossettes  from  one 
receptacle  to  another  cannot  be  accomplished  with  the  same 
ease  as  is  possible  when  handling  liquids.  In  order  to  over- 
come this  difficulty  it  has  been  proposed  to  reduce  cossettes  to 
a  sort  of  paste.  Furthermore,  the  cossettes  have  not  the  same 
contact  with  the  heating  surface  of  the  evaporator  as  is  possessed 
by  liquids,  and  the  co-efficient  of  heat  transmission  falls  very 
low.  The  multiple  effect  mode  of  desiccation  would  demand 
appliances  of  a  stupendous  size. 

.  All  efforts  to  apply  the  rational  principles  of  economy  in  this  Rational  appli- 
operation  of  cossette  drying  have  failed,  and,  strange  as  it  may    ances  led  to 
seem,  the  most  irrational  apparatus  yet  devised  has  apparently   P°or  resu|ts« 
led  to  the  most  practical  results.     The  rational  application  of 
heat,   based  upon  the  principle  of  counter  currents,  in  which 
the  cossettes  will  come  in  contact  with  gases  of  an  increasing 
temperature,  was  not  successful,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the 
residuum  was  burned. 
12 


178     FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

The  inventions   to   overcome   this   difficulty  are   extremely 


1  ____  _J 


a    lfc=g 


numerous  and  could  not  be  even  mentioned  in  this  writing. 
We  shall  center  our  attention  on  three  appliances,  which  are 


MACKEXSEX    DRYER.  179 

considered  to  be  standard  and  practical  in  working.     These  are 
.the  Mackensen,  the  Petry  &  Hecking  and  the  Buttner  &  Meyer. 

With  the  Mackensen  apparatus  several  hundred  tons  of  cos-  Mackensen 
settes  directly  from  the  presses  may  be  dried  per  diem.  This  dryer- 
apparatus  consists  of  two  long  drums  in  forged  iron  (I  and 
II),  about  43  feet  in  length  and  4J  feet  in  diameter,  each 
of  which  is  composed  of  three  sections,  having  iron  rings 
at  each  of  their  extremities,  and  working  on  trolleys.  Their 
rotatory  movement  corresponds  to  a  velocity  of  five  to  six 
revolutions  per  minute.  The  pressed  cossettes  fall  by  K  into  * 
the  first  drum,  passing  through  the  same  very  slowly,  and  the 
hot  gases  from  the  furnace  move  in  the  same  direction.  In  the 
first  drum  the  temperature  of  these  gases  is  about  140°  tq  150°  C. 
The  motion  of  the  cossettes  is  produced  partly  by  the  current  of 
hot  gases  that  carry  them  and  also  by  a  heating  apparatus  ar- 
ranged as  a  spiral  inside  of  the  appliance.  The  early  arrange- 
ment had  a  fire-grate,  over  which  air  passed,  in  front  of  each 
cylinder.  At  E  they  fall  into  an  oblique  spiral,  H,  which  raises 
and  compels  them  to  fall  into  the  second  drum,  where  the  tem- 
perature is  about  230°  F.  The  hot  gases  are  drawn  off  by  the 
so-called  exhauster,  Af,  and  penetrate  a  dust  chamber  where  the 
pulps  that  have  been  carried  forward  arc  deposited.  The  cos- 
settes on  entering  the  second  drum  contain  50  per  cent,  to  60 
per  cent,  moisture.  They  give  up  their  remaining  moisture  on 
entering  the  second  drum,  II,  and  fall  upon  the  spiral,  F,  which 
conducts  them  to  the  elevator,  by  means  of  which  they  are  car- 
ried to  the  loft  or  store-room.  Two  drums  are  sufficient  for  a 
factory  slicing  150  tons  of  beets  per  diem.  The  motive  power 
for  all  the  drums,  spirals,  lifts,  etc.,  is  not  more  than  15  to  20 
horse-power.  The  entire  plant  does  not  mean  an  expenditure 
of  more  than  55,000  marks  to  60,000  marks  [813,500  to  815,- 
000],  including  building,  chimneys,  etc. 

Residuum  having  originally  85  to  90  per  cent,  water,  retains 
only  8  to  12  per  cent,  when  the  operation  is  complete.  Con- 
sumption of  coal  is  about  180  to  220  Ibs.  per  100  Ibs.  of  residuum 
dried.  In  Germany,  the  product  finds  a  ready  market  at  about 
827  per  ton.  The  actual  cost  of  the  method  is  $16.80  per  ton 
of  dried  product  obtained.  The  daily  production  being  18  tons, 


180 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


the  daily  cost  of  working  is  about  $300.     The  shape  of  the  cos- 
settes  has  an  important  influence  on  the  working  of  the  machine. 


The  Retry-         The  Petry  &  Kecking  dryer  consists  of   several  successive 
Hecking  dryer,    chambers  in  the   shape  of   a  trough,    in  which  the  agitators 


BUTTNER  AND  MEYER  DRYER.  181 

revolve,  forcing  the  cossettes  to  move  forward  and  projecting 
them  from  one  compartment  to  another  through  the  openings 
that  are  arranged  in  the  separating  division.  These  passages 
are  not  in  each  case  in  the  same  position,  and  under  these  cir- 
cumstances the  gases  and  cossettes  are  forced  to  take  a  zig-zag 
motion  in  passing  through  the  apparatus.  In  this  dryer,  as  in 
the  appliance  already  described,  the  gases  move  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  cossettes,  but  they  leave  them  before  reaching 
the  last  compartment  of  the  apparatus,  from  which  they  are 
drawn  off  by  a  ventilator,  F,  which  forces  them  to  first  pass 
through  the  so-called  "  cyclones,"  C,  and  then  into  the  channel, 
K,  placed  beneath  the  last  heating  chamber,  which  receives  its 
caloric  indirectly,  L  e.,  without  danger  of  burning  the  cossettes. 
But  they  leave  this  last  compartment  to  fall  ultimately  thor- 
oughly dried  into  the  spiral,  S.  It  is  important  to  rectify  a 
very  erroneous  assertion  advanced  by  the  inventors  of  this 
dryer.  They  claim  that  the  gases  on  leaving  the  division  before 
their  final  exit,  heat  the  last  chamber,  and  thus  allow  the 
utilization  of  the  latent  heat  of  water  evaporation  held  in  sus- . 
pension  by  the  circulating  gases.  This  is  an  erroneous  theory; 
as  it  is  impossible  for  water  evaporated  from  the  cossettes  to 
become  re-heated  to  any  considerable  extent  so  as  to  be  again 
utilized  for  future  work.  From  the  very  time  that  water  has 
passed  into  the  condition  of  steam  it  becomes  an  inert  gas, 
which  mixes  with  the  hot  gases  and  can  no  longer  condense  in 
transmitting  its  heat  to  the  cossettes,  unless  the  residuum,  for 
one  reason  or  another,  has  become  cooled  at  the  very  time  that 
the  water  evaporated  was  liberated,  and  there  is  no  possible 
reason  for  such  cooling.  Experiments  show  that  2,539  kilos  of 
coke  are  needed  to  dry  21,000  kilos  of  cossettes  in  twenty-four 
hours.  One  man  can  attend  to  an  apparatus  of  100  tons 
capacity  per  diem. 

Notwithstanding   the    numerous    efforts   made  to  solve  this    Buttner  and 
problem,    from   an    economical   standpoint,    the   Buttner   and    ^tr  dryer- 
Meyer  dryer  actually  holds  its  own  to-day  against  all  comers, 
mainly  from  a  practical  point  of  view. 

The  Buttner  &  Meyer  furnace  is  based  upon  two  principles, 
one  of  which  is  that  the  hot  gases  from  the  center  of  combustion 


182 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


which  will  evaporate  the  water  of  the  cossettes,  should  be  at  the 
highest  possible  temperature  in  order  to  work  economically;  the 
second  is  that  the  cossettes  cannot  move  in  an  opposite  direction 
to  the  gases,  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  should  circulate  with 
them  until  they  leave  the  apparatus.  The  second  principle  is  a 
natural  outcome  of  the  first,  as  it  is  evident  that  gases  at  the 

FIG.   19. 


Side  View  of  Huttner-Meyrr  Dryer. 

temperature  at  which  they  enter  the  apparatus  (not  less  than 
400°  to  750°  C. — at  first  it  was  argued  if  the  temperature  was 
above  500°  C.,  the  cossettes  would  be  burned),  would  imme- 
diately ignite  if  they  were  circulating  in  an  opposite  direction. 
As  to  the  moist  cossettes  that  come  in  contact  with  'these  hot 
ases,  their  temperature  can  never  attain  100°  C.  so  long  as  they 


BUTTXER    AND    MEYER    DRYER. 


183 


retain  moisture,  as  all   the   heat   that  the  gases  communicate 
to  them  serves  in  the  transformation  of  this  water  into  steam. 

Upon  general  principles,  the  Buttner  &  Meyer  dryer  consists 
of  a  large  brick  frame-work,  upon  the  upper  part  of  which  is  a 
furnace,  surrounded  by  a  dome ;  in  it  the  hydro-carbonated 
gases  complete  their  combinations  and  are  finally  consumed, 

FIG.  20. 


End  View  of  Butt  tier  &  Meyer  Dryer. 

that  is  to  say  they  are  transformed  into  carbonic  acid  in  conse- 
quence of  their  combination  with  air  with  which  they  come  into 
contact.  This  frees  these  gases  from  the  particles  of  soot  that 
would  contaminate  the  cossettes  being  dried,  and  which  would 
consequently  give  them  an  unpleasant  flavor.  The  bottom  of 
the  dome  in  question  is  divided  in  two  by  a  small  brick  parti- 


184  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

tion,  on  the  one  side  of  which  are  collected  the  ash,  etc.,  that 
have  been  carried  forward  by  the  circulating  gases.  The  suction 
of  the  air  necessary  is  accomplished  by  the  so-called  exhauster, 
and  may  be  regulated  as  the  occasion  may  demand.  When  this 
is  used"  for  the  burning  of  peat  or  other  poor  fuel,  such  products 
are  first  thrown  upon  a  special  grating,  where  they  are  carbon- 
ized and  fall  gradually  from  layer  to  layer  until  completely 
consumed.  On  the  lower  and  upper  portion  of  the  dome  the 
gases  are  carried  forward  at  the  same  time  as  the  cossettes  into 
the  dryer  proper,  which  consists  of  three  semi-cylindrical  layers, 
one  over  the  other,  having  each  a  shaft  that  forces  the  spiral 
agitators  to  revolve  through  the  intervention  of  special  conical 
gearing  placed  outside  the  dryer.  These  axes  revolve  at  a 
velocity  of  26  revolutions  per  minute,  the  cossettes  are  intro- 
duced into  the  dryer  by  an  endless  band  carrier  and  spiral,  and 
are  deposited  above  the  chamber  of  the  drier.  This  residuum 
passes  through  the  apparatus,  comes  in  contact  with  the  hot 
gases  and  is  rapidly  dried.  As  we  have  already  described  above, 
there  is  no  apprehension  of  the  cossettes  being  carbonized,  as 
the  evaporation  of  the  water  they  contain  is  not  sufficiently 
rapid  to  prevent  their  reaching  a  temperature  of  100°  C.,  and 
this  is  a  very  essential  condition,  as  above  that  temperature 
Temperature  of  the  albuminoids  of  the  cossettes  would  be  rendered  very  much 
cossettes  being  less  digestible.  According  to  the  experiments  of  Kohler  the 
dried.  temperature  of  the  cossettes  in  this  dryer  never  reaches  even  90° 
C.,  as  in  his  laboratory  oven  experiments,  in  which  the  drying 
was  done  at  90°  C.,  the  dried  product  had  a  coefficient  of 
digestibility  less  than  that  of  the  dried  cossettes  obtained  in  the 
Buttner  and  Meyer  furnace. 

The  agitating  arms  of  the  spirals  are  not  combined  as  one 
might  suppose,  viz.,  so  as  to  push  the  cossettes  forward  and 
force  them  out  at  the  end  of  the  apparatus.  They  are,  on  the 
contrary,  arranged  so  as  to  compel  them  to  circulate  in  the 
opposite  direction  from  which  they  entered,  but  owing  to  a  cur- 
rent of  hot  air  they  become  dryer.  The  lighter  portions  are 
carried  down  to  the  second  division,  where  the  spiral  arm 
arrangement  raises  them  and  brings  them  again  in  contact  with 
the  hot  air  until  the  moment  that  they  are  carried  to  the  lower 


TEMPERATURE    OF    COSSETTES    BEING    DRIED.  185 

division  of  the  apparatus.  They  are  constantly  brought  in  con- 
tact with  the  hot  gases,  and  do  not  reach  the  bottom  of  the 
dryer  until  they  have  become  sufficiently  light  to  be  carried  for- 
ward by  the  circulating  gases. 

From  what  has  just  been  said  it  becomes  evident  that  the 
cossettes  are  raised  continuously  by  the  revolving  agitators  until 
a  period  when  the  hot  gases  will  render  them  sufficiently  light 
to  be  carried  a  little  farther  each  time  until  they  reach  the  ex- 
terior of  the  upper  trough,  from  which  they  fall  to  the  compart- 
ment directly  beneath,  always  coming  in  contact  with  the  circu- 
lating hot  gases.  They  pass  through  the  three  divisions  of  the 
apparatus  and  finally  fall  into  the  cylindrical  trough  at  the 
bottom,  in  which  is  a  revolving  spiral  that  forces  the  dried  resi- 
duum to  the  exterior  of  the  apparatus.  As  the  circulating  gases 
always  carry  a  considerable  amount  of  cossettes  in  suspension, 
this  would  mean  an  ultimate  loss;  so  before  leaving  the  dryer 
the  gases  are  forced  into  a  "cyclone"  where  the  particles  m 
suspension  are  deposited,  and  where  they  are  collected  to  be 
subsequently  added  to  the  dried  cossettes.  A  special  chimney 
is  connected  with  the  dome  of  the  dryer  and  serves  for  starting 
the  fire.  As  soon  as  this  cupola  is  sufficiently  hot,  and  after 
the  cossettes  enter  and  the  exhauster  is  working,  the  chimney  is 
closed.  As  the  occasion  may  demand,  this  chimney  allows  the 
escape  of  the  gases  of  combustion  at  a  time  when  the  supply  of 
fresh  cossettes  is  less  than  the  practical  efficiency  of  the  appa- 
ratus, due  for  example  to  a  stoppage  in  the  general  working  of 
the  factory  from  which  the  cossettes  are  obtained.  The  cossettes 
would  be  burned  if  some  means  were  not  adopted  to  meet  this 
emergency.  Furthermore,  it  allows,  upon  occasion,  an  entrance 
into  the  furnace.  It  permits  air  to  circulate  in  the  dryer  when 
necessary,  by  which  means  the  gases  may  be  cooled.  The 
apparatus  is  regulated  in  such  a  way  that  the  cossettes,  on  leav- 
ing the  dryer,  are  sufficiently  desiccated  and  the  gases  are  suffi- 
ciently cool  to  attain  their  saturation  point,  without,  however, 
being  cooled  enough  to  allow  the  water  to  condense.  By 
approaching  as  nearly  as  possible  this  point  of  condensation, 
one  realizes  the  economical  working  of  the  dryer. 

According  to  Buttner  and  Meyer  the   final   temperature  in 


186      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

their  dryer  should  be  110°  C.,  which  is  sufficient  to  prevent  the 
condensation  of  water  without  in  any  way  destroying  the  ulti- 
mate value  of  the  dried  cossettes.  By  lengthening  the  time 
that  the  cossettes  remain  in  the  dryer  one  may  obtain  any  de- 
Complete  drying  gree  of  dry  ness  that  the  occasion  may  call  for.  It  would  be 

unnecessary.  pOssibie  to  evaporate  their  water  completely.  However,  this 
would  be  unnecessary,  as  the  dry  residuum  would  re-absorb  12 
per  cent,  to  15  per  cent,  of  moisture  when  coming  in  contact 
with  the  air.  Buttner  and  Meyer  do  not  go  beyond  a  limit  of 
88  per  cent,  of  dry  matter,  which  corresponds  with  that  of  hay 
and  other  dry  forage. 

In  order  to  regulate  the  temperature  of  the  furnace  and  the 
exit  of  the  gases,  special  appliances  are  arranged  on  the  dryer 
permitting  the  air  to  enter  in  such  quantities  as  circumstances 
may  demand. 

Regulating  the  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  amount  of  cossettes  entering  a 
dryer.  furnace  is  an  important  factor  as  regards  the  final  temperature 
of  the  gases.  The  smaller  the  volume  of  cossettes  in  the  dryer 
the  greater  the  tendency  of  the  temperature  to  rise.  This  may 
be  readily  explained,  as  then  a  large  portion  of  the  caloric  is 
not  utilized  for  the  evaporation  of  the  water  of  the  cossettes. 
The  working  of  the  dryer  and  the  suction  of  the  air  should  be 
regulated  so  as  to  correspond  with  the  entrance  of  the  cossettes 
into  the  apparatus.  It  is  essential  in  this  dryer  that  the  suction 
of  air  should  be  regulated  so  as  to  correspond  to  the  volume  of 
cossettes  being  dried;  excess  w7ould  always  mean  a  fall  of  tem- 
perature. The  variations  of  temperature  are  very  slight  in  the 
Buttner  and  Meyer  furnace  owing  to  the  considerable  mass  of 
masonry  of  which  the  dryer  consists,  which  within  itself  consti- 
tutes a  sort  of  a  heat  regulator.  The  initial  and  final  temper- 
ature of  the  gases  are  two  facts  that  are  most  important  to  watch. 
The  first  can  oscillate  within  the  limit  from  200°  to  300°,  and 
have,  evidently,  an  enormous  importance.  An  excessively  low 
temperature  would  mean  that  too  much  air  had  been  mixed 
with  the  hot  gases,  and  there  is  no  question  but  that  it  is 
far  better  to  use  directly  the  caloric  of  the  fuel  to  evaporate 
water  than  to  re-heat  the  air;  the  higher  the  initial  temperature 
the  greater  will  be  the  economical  working  of  the  dryer. 


OBJECTIONABLE    FEATURE    OF    DRYERS.  187 

Fettback  has  analyzed  the  gases  of  this  dryer,  in  order  to  make 
sure  that  they  are  supersaturated  with  moisture.  By  observing 
the  temperature  shown  on  the  moistened  thermometer  and  that 
of  the  dry  thermometer,  and  also  the  pressure  indicated  on  a 
barometer,  it  becomes  possible  to  ascertain  the  relative  hygro- 
static  condition  of  these  gases.  Specially  arranged  diagrams 
showed  the  influence  of  the  volume  of  the  cossettes  to  be  dried 
upon  the  final  temperature  of  the  gases  and  also  their  relative 
moisture. 

When  there  are  defects  in  the  dryer  they  may  be  noticed  by 
a  fall  of  temperature  of  the  gases  and  their  comparative  moist- 
ure. The  regulating  of  the  dryer  may,  to  a  certain  extent,  be 
done  by  ascertaining  its  practical  working  efficiency,  allowing  for 
the  utilization  of  the  caloric  of  the  fuel. 

We  give  herewith  the  formula  proposed  by  Rydlewski  for  the  Practical  work- 
calculation  of  the  efficiency  of  a  cossette  dryer:  We  may  sup-   ing  of  dryer, 
pose  that  Q  is  the  weight  of  the  fresh  cossettes,  and  q  the  weight 
of  the  dried  cossettes,  t  the  temperature  in  degrees  Centigrade  of 
the  moist  cossettes,  and  p  the  weight  of  the  coal,  while  c  is  the 
number  of  calories  liberated  by  the  combustion  of  one  kilo,  of 
coal. 

Caloric  utilized  C  =  [Q  -  q]  [637  —  t] . 
Caloric  furnished  C'  =  cp. 

~      ..    ,    ffi  .  100  x  C 

Practical  efficiency  x  per  cent.  =  — ^ . 

O 

The  application  of  this  formula  has  given  for  the  Buttner  and   Objectionable 
Meyer  dryer,  as  well  as  for  the  Petry  and  Hecking  apparatus,     feature  of 
an  efficiency  of  82.04  per  cent.     This  formula  enables  one  to 
ascertain  within  what  limit  it  is  possible  to  introduce  moist  cos- 
settes into  the  dryer  at  a  variable  temperature,  and  to  what  ex- 
tent temperature  has  an  influence  on  the  efficiency  of  the  dryer. 
A  rise  of  temperature  of  30°  to  35°  C.  means  certainly  an  econ- 
omy of  5  per  cent,  in  fuel. 

Some  objections  have  been  made  to  the  Buttner  and  Meyer 
dryer,  also  to  the  Mackensen  appliance,  that  there  follows  an 
important  loss  of  dry  substances  carried  forward  by  the  hot 
gases.  Some  authorities  have  declared  that  this  loss  is  25  per 
cent,  to  30  per  cent.,  and  even  40  per  cent.  This,  without 


188  FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

doubt,  is  a  great  exaggeration.  Rydlewski  has  shown  beyond 
cavil  that  when  the  dryer  is  conducted  as  it  should  be  there  is 
not  a  loss  greater  than  2.45  per  cent,  of  dry  substances,  or  0.16 
per  cent,  calculated  upon  the  basis  of  the  weight  of  the  entire 
beet;  this  is  especially  true  in  the  Buttner  and  Meyer  dryer. 

On  the  other  hand,  Kohler  declares  that  in  his  investigations 
the  losses  of  dry  substances  are  0.1  per  cent,  of  the  beets  worked, 
and  1.7  per  cent,  of  the  total  dry  substance?  contained  in  the 
desiccated  cossettes. 

The  Buttner  and  Meyer  dryer  has  had  many  applications  in 
Germany  and  in  France,  and  our  attention  has  been  called  to 
data  obtained  at  a  factory  at  Fisme  (France).  The  plant  has 
been  .worked  with  great  satisfaction  for  several  years,  all  tem- 
peratures being  regulated  automatically.  Besides  the  regular 
plant  there  is  also  a  steam  engine.  At  first  coke  was  the  only 
combustible  used,  but  at  present  any  kind  of  fuel  answers  the 
purpose. 

According  to  Brunehaut  the  analysis  of  fresh  and  dried  pulp 
at  Fisme  was  as  follows: 

FRESH  COSSETTES.  DRIED  COSSETTES. 

Water 88.40.  Water 10.36. 

Dry  substances 11.60.  Dry  substances 89.64. 

The  efficiency  of  the  dryer  is  about  900  Ibs.  dried  cossettes 
per  hour,  and  the  consumption  of  fuel  (coal)  about  800  Ibs. 

If  we  admit  900  ibs.  per  hour,  this  represents  about  21,600 
Ibs.  per  diem,  and  this  amount  contains  19,273  Ibs.  dry  sub- 
stances,   corresponding   in   fresh   pulp   to    166,100   Ibs.      The 
amount  of  water  evaporated  is  correspondingly 
166,100  —  21,600  =  144,500  Ibs. 

The  consumption  of  coal  is  19, '200  Ibs.,  consequently  the  fuel 
consumption  per  Ib.  of  water  evaporated  is  about  8  Ibs.  The 
cost  of  the  dried  cossettes  including  sinking  fund  for  money  in- 
vested and  all  other  items  was  about  $16.00  per  ton,  or  72  cts. 
per  100  Ibs.  This  is  certainly  in  excess  of  what  it  should  be 
and  may  be  due  to  fuel  used. 

Cost  of  plant.        Opinions  vary — some  say  to  work  20,000  tons  of  beets  the 
plant  would  cost  at  least  $20,000. 


STEAM    DRYING.  189 

COST  OF  PLANT  IN  RELATION  TO  ITS  CAPACITY. 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

i 

Cost  of  installation  $23,000 

$28,000 

$18,000  ;  $15,  000  ;  $24,000 

$32,000 

Beets  worked  per  diem.  |      300 

300 

200 

150 

350 

300 

For  the  United  States  a  plant  preparing  100  tons  of  resid- 
uum per  diem  would  cost  at  least  $45,000.  On  the  other 
hand  the  average  cost  for  drying  cossettes,  in  eight  German 
factories,  it  not  more  than  17.4  pfennig  per  100  kilos  of  pressed 
cossettes,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  among  these  factories 
there  was  one  that  worked  very  poorly  during  the  period  of 
observation.  In  certain  exceptional  cases  this  cost  has  not  been 
more  than  14  pfennig. 

The  steam  drying  method  for  the  complete  desiccation  of  Steam  drying. 
cossettes  is  said  to  be  a  new  departure,  and  has  met  with  great 
success  in  Austria.  The  plant  recently  built  is  for  a  900-ton 
factory,  and  cost  about  $80,000  in  that  country.  All  calcula- 
tions made,  it  is  estimated  that  even  if  the  dried  cossettes  sell 
for  $2  a  ton  the  daily  profits  will  be  $200.  The  daily  con- 
sumption of  coal  is  about  100  pounds  per  ton  of  beets  handled 
at  the  factory.  In  this  steam  method  there  is  no  danger  of  the 
residuum  being  burned  by  overheating,  as  is  frequently  the  case 
by  other  modes  of  drying.  It  is  claimed  that  nearly  all  the  dry 
substances  contained  in  the  original  beet  are  to  be  found  in  the 
final  dried  residuum  (?),  averaging  90  per  cent,  dry  substances. 
The  residuum  cossettes,  after  being  pressed  in  a  Klusemann  or 
Bergreen  press  are  carried  by  a  moving  apron  and  emptied  into 
a  trough  with  revolving  horizontal  agitators,  and  heated  with 
exhaust  steam  circulating  in  a  jacket.  The  residuum  is  kept 
for  a  considerable  time  at  a  temperature  of  40  to  45°  C. ,  and  is 
subsequently  run  into  special  presses  very  much  of  the  same 
design  as  Klusemann.  To  each  press  there  is  attached  an 
apparatus  not  unlike  a  meat  chopper  in  its  general  construction, 
and  after  this  subdivision  of  the  fibre,  the  residuum  is  carried 
by  an  endless  screw  to  the  dryers,  each  of  which  is  about  5  feet 


190 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


FIG.  21. 


wide,  18  feet  long  and  15  feet  high.  In  its  interior  are  four 
horizontal  troughs,  placed  one  over  the  other,  each  of  whieh  has 
a  steam  jacket.  In  each  trough  is  a 
rotating,  horizontal,  tubular  cluster, 
6r,  through  which  steam  circulates, 
consequently  the  hashed  cossettes  are 
heated  in  the  troughs  and  also  heated 
during  their  rotating  motion.  The 
product  being  dried  falls  successively 
from  one  trough  to  another  and  circu- 
lates the  entire  length  of  each.  When 
the  dried  cossettes  finally  leave  the 
apparatus,  another  rotating  device,  in 
which  there  is  no  air,  helps  the  empty- 
ing. The  moist  air  from  the  oven  is 
removed  with  a  ventilator,  the  air  pass- 
ing through  an  arrester  which  retains 
all  the  solid  particles  in  suspension. 
The  entire  motive  power  of  the  dryer 
is  transmitted  by  gearing  outside  of 
the  dryer.  The  dryer  proper  is  metal; 
the  exterior  covering,  however,  is  wood. 
The  dried  residuum  leaves  the  dryer 
at  30°  C.  (86°  F.).  In  different  parts 
of  the  dryer  the  maximum  temperature 

is  110°  C.  (230°  F.).  It  is  maintained  that  the  following  trans- 
formations take  place:  One  hundred  pounds  of  residuum  pulp 
with  10  per  cent,  dry  matter  may  be  considered  to  have  been 
obtained  from  200  pounds  of  beets,  giving  67  pounds  cossettes, 
writh  15  per  cent,  dry  matter  and  only  11  pounds  of  dried 
product  containing  90  per  cent,  of  dry  substances.  German 
experience  would  appear  to  show  that  there  wras  needed  for  the 
drying  80  pounds  of  coal  per  100  pounds  of  dried  cossettes, 
without  allowance  being  made  for  the  motive  power.  Calcu- 
lated upon  a  basis  of  one  ton  of  beets,  this  means  that  120 
pounds  dried  product  demand  110  pounds  coal.  For  the  pro- 
duction of  10  tons  of  dried  cossettes  in  24  hours,  frhere  is  needed 
a  force  of  50  H.P.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  in  the 


//////  ///r 


End  View  and  Section  of 
Steam  Dryer. 


APPEARANCE    OF    THE    DRIED    RESIDUUM. 


191 


tion  of  fuel  consumption,  the  drying  is  done  during  the  regular 
sugar  campaign,  and  the  steam  used  is  simply  the  exhaust  from 
the  various  pieces  of  apparatus  of  the  factory.  The  daily 
capacity  of  the  dryer  may  be  increased  by  adding  an  oven  to  the 
series.  It  is  claimed  that  with  this  apparatus,  without  any 
additional  device,  it  is  possible  to  use  the  dryers  for  mixing  dried 
cossettes  with  residuum  molasses.  This  device  is  so  simple  in 
its  construction  that  a  drawing  was  considered  unnecessary  to 
convey  to  the  reader  the  general  construction  of  the  dryers. 

The  Thiesen  dryer  consists  of  a  large  vertical  cylinder  in  Thiesen  dryer. 
which  are  placed  alternately  funnels  attached  to  the  sides,  and 
a  sort  of  plate  or  dish  fixed  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder. 
Special  scrapers  are  placed  on  the  axis  of  the  dryer,  which 
brush  the  funnels  and  force  the  substance  being  dried  to  fall 
upon  the  plates,  etc.  The  substance  to  be  dried  enters  at  the  top 
and  leaves  at  the  bottom  of  dryer.  The  Heckmann  dryer  consists 
of  a  large  horizontal  cylinder  closed  by  a  suitable  cover  with 
glasses  for  observation — the  progress  of  the  drying  can  thus  be 
closely  watched.  In  the  interior  is  a  series  of  platforms  or  shelves, 
having  at  their  lower  portion  pipes  for  heating,  which  may  be 
lengthened  or  shortened,  as  the  occasion  may  demand.  Piping  on 
top  of  the  cylinder  makes  a  connection  with  the  vacuum  pump. 

The  dried  cossettes  consist  of  fragments,  about  one  inch  in  Composition  and 
length,  and  light  green  in  color.     To  the  touch  they  are  rather  appearance  of  the 
resistant  and  readily  break  between  the  fingers,  especially  when  drled  residuum- 
they  have  been  dried  too  much.     Their  average  composition 
is  as  follows: 

AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  DRIED  COSSETTES. 


SUBSTANCES. 

Analysis  of  Konig. 

Analysis  of  Pott. 

\Viter  

15  57 

Nitrogenous 
substances  •  •  • 
Fatty  substances 
Non-nitrogen- 
ous substances 

7.63 
1.09 

49.65 

18  22 

< 
c 

7.5       " 
1.0       " 

58.4      " 
17  1       " 

Ash  

4  19 

f  0.398    oxid    of 

Sand 

Q   f\Z 

;     [of  which  JoKosphoric 

[  6.0       " 

(.     acid. 

I 

192 


FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


At  one  time  it  was  admitted  that  if  the  percentage  of  nitrogen 
in  fresh  cossettes  is  one,  that  of  the  dried  product  is  8.16. 
Cossettes  com-      The  composition  of  the  dried  residuum  compares  favorably 
pared  with  hay.  with  meadow  hay. 

COMPARATIVE  ANALYSES  OF  DRIED  COSSETTES  AND  HAY. 


SUBSTANCES. 

Dried  cossettes. 

Hay. 

11  00 

14  3 

7  R7 

q  7 

1  40 

0  A 

Fikre  

20  00 

26  3 

Ash  

7  14 

6  2 

ol  Q3 

41  0 

According  to  Pott  the  minimum  and  maximum  variations  in 
the  composition  of  the  product  are  as  follows:  Dried  substances 
84.2  to  94.7,  nitrogenous  substances  6.3  to  8*5,  fatty  substances 
0.4  to  1.5,  cellulose  13.5  to  20.7 

The  introduction  and  rapidly  increasing  popularity  of  desic- 
cated cossettes  may  be  explained  by  the  important  nutritive 
losses  that  cossettes  undergo  during  siloing,  which  is  evidently 
to  their  disadvantage. 

In  certain  cases  sugar  factories  lose  through  neglect  20  per 
cent,  of  their  cossettes  [this  in  Europe  is  excessive] ;  this  fact 
alone  allows  any  one  to  approximate  the  advantages  that  will 
necessarily  be  derived  from  cossette  drying.  The  saving  thus 
effected,  provided  the  product  is  utilized,  constitutes  an  impor- 
tant margin  towards  the  cost  of  the  drying  operation.  Upon 
general  principles  dry  forage  of  this  kind  has  considerably 
increased  in  popularity  of  late  owing  to  its  healthy  appearance, 
Comparison  be-  and  also  to  its  excessive  digestibility.  Maercker  and  Morgen 
tween  siloed  and  declare  that  no  product  of  fermentation  is  more  digestible  and 
more  nourishing  from  any  standpoint  than  are  the  fresh  sub- 
stances from  which  the  dried  residuum  has  been  obtained.  It 
is  much  to  be  regretted  that  no  appliance  has  so  far  been  devised 


dried  cossettes. 


COMPARISON  BETWEEN  SILOED  AND  DRIED  COSSETTES.      193 

that  allows  one  to  compute  the  digestibility  of  the  non-nitro- 
genous extracted  substances,  as  can  be  done  with  the  nitro- 
genous elements  by  means  of  the  Stutzer  method. 

It  is  declared  that  when  non-nitrogenous  extractible  and 
digestible  substances  are  mixed  with  the  indigestible  and  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  micro-organisms,  a  fermentation  or  putre- 
faction follows.  The  most  soluble  and  most  easily  digested  sub- 
stances are  the  first  to  ferment  and  undergo  putrefaction,  and  it 
is  precisely  in  these  compounds  that  the  greatest  losses  occur. 
The  soured  residuums  are  less  digestible  than  the  fresh  or  than 
the  dried  cossettes,  provided  the  desiccation  has  been  effected 
at  a  sufficiently  IOWT  temperature  to  prevent  the  albuminoids 
from  becoming  insoluble.  As  fermentation  is  a  phenomenon 
that  removes  from  the  forage  a  certain  amount  of  fuel,  which 
means  a  reduction  in  its  caloric  power,  it  results  in  a  smaller 
nutritive  equivalent.  Among  the  active  elements  of  this  fer- 
mentation may  be  mentioned  acetic  or  butyric  acid,  which  has, 
as  determined  by  Weiske,  a  nutritive  equivalent  which  is  very 
small.  They  even  occasion  a  decreased  assimilation  of  nitrogen. 
However,  it  has  been  noticed  that  the  lactic  acid  causes  a  slight 
increase  in  the  amount  of  albuminoids  deposited  in  the  organ- 
ism. In  all  cases  these  acids  have  a  nutritive  equivalent  less 
than  carbohydrates,  from  which  they  are  derived,  and  it  is  easy 
to  see  that  the  cattle  breeder  loses  very  considerably  from  this 
point  of  view  if  one  considers  that  acids  form  more  than  20  per 
cent,  of  the  dry  substances  of  the  siloed  cossettes.  Morgen, 
however,  finds  17.98  per  cent,  of  acids,  and  the  maximum 
that  he  was  ever  able  to  discover  was  28.98  per  cent.,  calculated 
on  a  basis  of  lactic  acid.  It  is  important  to  add  to  this  the  fact 
that  a  portion  of  the  albuminoids  is  transformed  into  amides,  of 
which  the  nutritive  equivalent  is  less,  and  can,  according  to 
Ku'hn,  only  be  compared  with  carbohydrates  in  view  of  their 
economizing  the  albumen  consumption  in  the  organism. 
Finally,  a  portion  of  the  albuminoids,  according  to  Maercker 
and  Meyer,  is  completely  destroyed  during  fermentation;  they 
are  the  most  easily  digested  and  they  are  the  first,  as  previously 
stated,  to  disappear,  as  they  are  more  actively  influenced  by  the 
micro-organisms  and  consequently  more  readily  fermented. 
13 


194      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

This  explains  the  decrease  in  the  digestibility  of  the  albumin- 
oids contained  in  siloed  cossettes,  which  falls  to  73  per  cent., 
while  the  coefficient  of  digestibility  is,  for  dried  cossettes,  86.06 
per  cent.  The  importance,  therefore,  of  the  dry  cossettes  is 
manifest,  not  only  for  the  sugar  factories,  where  as  we  have 
before  explained  they  reach  enormous  proportions,  but  also  for 
the  breeder. 

Advantages  of       It  is  not  only  from  this  standpoint  that  there  are  advantages 
dried  cossettes  ^Q  ^e  derived  from  this  dried  forage.     If  one  examines  the  in- 

fftt  fepHInn 

fluence  upon  the  organism  of  the  large  volume  of  water  con- 
tained in  the  soured  cossettes,  the  subject  may  be  classified  as 
follows:  First,  the  cold  water  they  contain  has  to  be  re-heated 
to  the  temperature  of  the  body;  second,  the  evaporation  of 
water  through  the  pores  of  the  skin  and  lungs  increases  consid- 
erably, which  demands  a  largely  increased  consumption  of  cal- 
oric; third,  the  amount  of  blood  formed  is  increased,  and 
with  it  there  follows  a  considerable  increase  of  wear  and  tear  on 
the  organism;  and  fourth,  the  consumption  of  albuminoids 
is  increased,  for  the  simple  reason  that  an  increased  absorption 
of  water  is  always  followed  by  such  burning. 

Heat  needed  to  Maercker  and  Morgen  have  demonstrated  for  the  first  of  these 
er  clauses  that  if  one  divides  equally  between  ten  sheep  a  ration  of 
17.72  kilos,  of  cossettes  per  diem,  and  that  if  the  temperature 
of  these  cossettes  is  5°  to  10°  C.,  there  would  be  required,  to 
eliminate  the  water  they  contain,  a  temperature  of  the  body  of 
37.5°  C.  This  would  demand  488  to  576  calories,  which  in 
other  words  means  the  heat  liberated  by  125  gr.  to  150  gr.  of 
starch,  and  they  declare  that,  while  this  quantity  may  appear 
of  very  slight  importance,  when  considered  from  the  point  of 
view  of  daily  consumption,  it  becomes  very  significant  after  a 
long  period.  Furthermore,  a  greater  absorption  of  water  is 
always  followed  by  increased  excretion  of  the  body  in  general, 
either  through  the  skin  or  the  lungs,  through  which  a  large 
quantity  of  water  passes,  and  to  transform  it  into  a  vapory  con- 
dition demands  a  certain  amount  of  caloric,  which  necessarily 
must  be  taken  from  the  food  consumed. 

If  one  takes  as  a  basis  for  his  argument  the  experiments  on 
respiration  by  Henneberg  and  Maercker,  the  conclusion  would 


HEAT  NEEDED  TO  EVAPORATE  WATER  DRUNK.    195 

be  that  the  increase  of  water  to  be  evaporated  is  40  per  cent,  of 
the  additional  water  consumed.  But  Henneberg  has  recently 
demonstrated  that  this  amount  is  excessive,  and  declares  that  of 
the  water  drunk  not  more  than  7  to  17  per  cent,  is  to  be  elim- 
inated through  perspiration,  etc. 

Vogel  made  a  series  of  experiments  with  sheep,  and  concluded 
from  one  of  these  investigations  that  the  average  of  evaporation 
was  30.78  per  cent,  of  water  absorbed.  Another  experiment 
gave  16.36  per  cent.,  or  an  average  for  the  two  experiments  of 
23.57  per  cent.  But  the  ration  under  consideration  contained 
only  0.6  kilo  of  starch.  This  quantity  is  lost  as  a  forage  as  it 
has  no  equivalent  -as  work.  An  increase  in  the  quantity  of 
blood  without  doubt  results,  but  it  remains  to  be  proved 
whether  the  increase  in  question  means  additional  wrork. 

According  to  Volkmann  ^G  only  of  the  force  developed  by 
the  heart  is  used,  properly  speaking,  for  the  blood;  the  re- 
mainder is  utilized  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  friction  in  the 
arterial  and  venous  circulation.  It  remains  to  be  demonstrated 
whether  this  resistance  is  increased  in  consequence  of  a  greater 
quantity  of  blood  put  into  circulation,  or,  on  the  contrary,  is 
diminished,  owing  to  the  greater  fluidity  of  the  blood.  Up  to 
wrhat  point  can  these  two  contradictory  elements  be  considered  as 
compensating  one  for  the  other  ?  Maercker  appears  to  lean  to- 
wards the  theory  of  an  increase  in  the  necessary  force  at  the  time 
of  the  circulation  under  consideration.  As  for  the  consumption 
of  albuminoids,  it  is,  according  to  Mares,  more  and  more  pro- 
nounced when  the  previous  ration  was  deficient  in  these  ele- 
ments. This  would  be  due  to  a  large  consumption  of  water, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  it  destroys  and  decomposes  the  living 
substances  of  the  protoplasm.  If  this  absorption  of  water  is  of 
daily  occurrence  the  weight  of  the  animal  fed  may  decline  in  a 
very  marked  degree.  In  order  to  overcome  this  decomposition 
and  to  reconstruct  or  build  up  the  protoplasm,  it  becomes 
urgent  to  feed  to  animals  elements  richer  in  albumen  than 
w7ould  otherwise  have  been  necessary,  as  neither  the  fatty  sub- 
stances nor  the  carbohydrates  can  meet  the  demand. 

Weisbeck  has  fattened  cattle  and  has  obtained  the  following 
results,  which  show  the  influence  of  the  excessive  water 
absorbed : 


196 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


Ration  of  40  kilos  soured  cossettes  containing  35.85  kilos 
water  and  4.15  kilos  dry  substances,  increase  of  weight  per  diem 
1.58  kilos. 

Ration  of  50  kilos  soured  cossettes  containing  44.53  kilos 
water  and  5.47  kilos  dry  substances,  increase  of  weight  per 
diem  1.23  kilos. 

Henneberg  has  made  similar  experiments  with  milch  cows, 
and  has  also  come  to  the  conclusion  that  there  follows  a  de- 
crease in  the  weight,  with  a  slight  increase,  however,  in  the 
quantity  of  milk  obtained,  as  shown  herewith: 

INFLUENCE  OF  WATER  IN  KATION  ON  MILK  AND  WEIGHT  OF  Cows. 


Varying  water  content  of  ration. 

Milk  per  diem. 

Increase  of  weight 
per  diern. 

Ration  containing  19.71  kilos  water  •• 

13.36  kilos. 

0.586  kilo. 

Ration  containing  28.50  kilos  water  .  . 

13.46     k< 

0.097     " 

Ration  containing  37.12  kilos  water  .  . 

14.15     " 

*0.006     " 

*  Decrease. 


Dried  cossettes  If  it  is  true  in  agriculture  that  it  is  not  desirable  to  throw 
more  hygienic  away  all  that  has  an  unpleasant  smell,  it  is,  on  the  other  hand, 
than  the  siloed,  durable  to  be  able  to  transform  a  forage  that  has  a  bad  odor, 
such  as  soured  cossettes,  into  an  odorless  forage,  such  as  dried 
cossettes.  Outside  of  the  direct  disagreeable  features  of  siloed 
cossettes  there  follows  an  indirect  unpleasantness.  Some  authors 
claim  that  the  products  of  a  daily  using  soured  cossettes  have  a 
slight  smell  and  always  retain  it,  and  their  conservation  is 
also  rendered  more  difficult.  It  does  not  necessarily  follow 
that  these  substances  are  communicated  directly  to  the  said  pro- 
duct by  the  passage  through  the  organism,  but  the  micro-organ- 
isms with  which  the  forage  is  supercharged,  float  in  the  air  of  the 
stables,  and  consequently  fall  into  the  milk.  Or,  furthermore, 
they  may  reach  the  milk  from  the  hands  of  those  employed  in 
doing  the  dairy  work,  who  are,  unfortunately,  not  over  careful 
in  the  use  of  antiseptics.  These  micro-organisms  give  a  slight 


MINERAL    SUBSTANCES    IN    THE    DRIED    COSSETTES.        197 

disagreeable  taste  to  butter  and  milk  products.  It  is  moreover 
well  to  add  that  soured  cossettes  may  in  certain  cases  develop 
disease,  such  as  epizootic  and  catarrh  of  the  stomach  and  in- 
testines. 

It  is  furthermore  to  be  regretted  that  siloed  cossettes  are  fre- 
quently handled  with  great  carelessness.  Maercker  and  Meyer 
mention  one  case  where  the  cossettes  remained  in  silos  in  con- 
tact with  dead  animals  and  became  infected  with  disease. 
Under  such  conditions  siloed  cossettes  naturally  cannot  be  con- 
sidered a  desirable  forage,  as  such  products  are  not  only  detri- 
mental to  the  health  of  the  animals  fed,  but  also  to  their 
descendants. 

Among  the  indirect  advantages  possessed  by  dried  cossettes  is  Dried  cossettes 
the  fact  that  the  work  of  oxen  is  lessened  in  the  fall  of  the  year.    more  readi|y 
The  weight  of  dry  cossettes  is  $-  of  that  of  pressed,  fresh  or  handled  than 
soured  cossettes.     In  most  instances  the  beet  wagons  may  return       sj(oe(j 
empty,  and  in  this  way  one  avoids  the  loss  of  time  occasioned 
by  the  long  period  of  waiting  in  the  yards  of  the  factories  for 
the  return  loads  of  fresh  cossettes.     Again  it  may  be  pointed 
out  that  these  long  waits  are  hurtful  to  the  general  health  of 
the  animals.     Thus  the  economy  obtained  by  the  use  of  dried 
cossettes  in  the  matter  of  the  transportation  from  the  factories 
to  the  silos   and   then  to  the   stable   is   considerable.     Heine 
states  that  this  cost  is   10  pfennigs  per  100  kilos  for  a  distance 
of  three  kilometres.     The  carriage  for  longer  distances  by  rail- 
road is  often  greater.     Under  all  circumstances  there  necessarily 
follows  a  considerably  economy  in  the  amount  of  wear  and  tear 
that  the  draft-animals  are  called  upon  to  undergo. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  cossettes  contain  considerable   Mineral  sub- 
mineral  substances.     This  is  one  of  the  objections  to  cossette  stances  in  the 
drying  by  means  of  direct  fire.     The  ash  carried  forward  by  the dried  cossettes- 
circulating  hot  gases  adheres  to  the  cossettes  that  are  yet  moist. 
It  would  be  possible  to  decrease  this  action  by  forcing  the  gases 
through  metallic  gauze  with  a  very  close  mesh,  which  would  re- 
tain the  suspended  cinders.     If,  for  the  purpose  of  drying,  one 
uses  coke  on  the  grate,  and  this  coke  contains  sulphur,  the 
resulting  product  will  necessarily  have  a  bad  odor  when  moist- 
ened.    While  this  may  not  have  any  complicated  or  objection- 


198      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

able  influence  when  considered  from  a  hygienic  standpoint,  the 
cattle  to  which  it  is  fed  will  frequently  refuse  it.  The  dried 
cossettes,  furthermore,  have  the  advantage  over  the  soured  pro- 
duct of  facilitating  the  compounding  of  a  ration,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  its  composition  is  almost  constant,  whereas  soured 
cossettes  leave  much  to  be  desired  on  this  point. 

Conservation  of  The  dried  cossettes  have,  as  regards  their  keeping  powers,  a 
dried  cossettes.  great  advantage  over  the  siloed  product.  They  require,  how- 
ever, a  covered  building  protecting  them  against  rain,  etc.,  for 
their  preservation  and  storage.  It  is  not  necessary  to  bestow 
more  care  upon  them  than  is  given  to  any  other  dry  forage. 
Helbrigel  placed  cossettes  in  a  moist  environment  for  three 
months,  and  the  residuum  did  not  absorb  more  than  15  per 
cent,  of  moisture,  showing  that  it  has  little  hygroscopic 
power. 

Change  during       Other  experiments  have  been  made  by  placing  the  dried  cos- 
keeping,      settes  in  a  very  damp  cellar  for  six  months,  when  they  be- 
came moist  and  mildewed.     These  experiments,  however,  were 
made  under  exceptional  conditions,   which  are  not  found  in 
practice. 

Cossettes  that  are  dried  at  a  low  temperature  would,  however, 
absorb  a  little  more  water,  but  when  they  are  placed  in  a  moist 
storehouse  at  a  low  temperature  they  will  take  up  20  per  cent, 
water  and  remain  in  this  condition  for  a  long  period  of  months. 
They  will  not  mildew  any  more  than  does  hay  during  its  keep- 
ing. Under  normal  conditions  it  has  been  noticed  that  when 
giving  this  dried  residuum  the  usual  care  the  loss  of  dry  sub- 
stances, after  months  of  keeping,  is  less  than  it  would  be  with 
most  of  the  standard  fodders,  and  even  less  than  it  is  with  oil 
cake. 

As  is  the  case  with  all  dry  fodders,  the  cossettes  increase  in 
weight  during  the  first  year  of  their  keeping,  after  which  there 
follows  a  slight  loss  of  dry  substances.  The  increase  is  found 
mainly  in  the  cellulose,  the  nitrogenous  substances  and  the 
ash,  while  the  gaseous  extracts  and  fatty  substances  diminish. 
As  a  general  thing  the  mass,  after  being  kept  some  time,  be- 
comes possessed  of  a  certain  butyric  odor,  which  is  the  out- 
come of  the  gradual  oxidation  of  the  carbohydrates  and  the  fatty 


DIGESTIBILITY    OF    COSSETTES. 


199 


constituents,  which  fact  in  itself  explains  the  decrease  in  their 
percentage.  As  for  the  albuminoids,  they  undergo  no  change 
as  regards  their  quantity,  but  their  quality  slightly  diminishes, 
as  is  the  case  with  all  other  substances  contained  in  fodders  in 
general.  A  cubic  metre  of  the  dried  residuum  weighs  300  kilos. 
It  occupies,  consequently,  one-half  the  volume  of  either  the 
fresh  or  the  siloed  cossettes. 

Morgen,  in  1888,  published  a  series  of  investigations  on  the 
digestibility  of  the  nitrogenous  substances  contained  in  fresh, 
soured  and  dried  cossettes,  which  demonstrated  that  the  assimil- 
ability  of  their  constituents  was  about  the  same  for  each  form  of 
cossette.  From  the  data  he  then  obtained  he  concluded  that 
the  albuminoids  of  siloed  cossettes  could  not  be  considered  less 
digestible  than  those  of  the  fresh  or  dried  residuum.  They  ap- 
peared, on  the  contrary,  to  be  possessed  of  considerable  advan- 
tages in  this  respect,  which  led  to  the  conclusion  that  if  there  is 
a  loss  of  albuminoids  in  a  silo,  the  value  of  soured  cossettes  as 
a  forage  was  not  lessened;  on  the  contrary,  their  digestibility 
had  increased.  These  experiments  led  to  the  following  results: 

KELATIVE  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  FRESH,  DRIED  AND  SILOED  COSSETTES. 


Various  fodders. 

Digestible  raw 
protein. 

Digestible 
albuminoids. 

Per  cent. 
7«  Q 

Per  cent. 
7fi  3 

70  7 

70  7 

83  2 

81  7 

The  difference  in  the  analysis,  between  the  soured  cossettes 
and  the  other  two  products,  appears  to  be  caused  by  the  excess 
of  nitrogenous  substances  that  are  not  necessarily  albuminoids 
and  which  are  indicated  as  raw  protein.  Morgen  declares  that 
these  data  are  entirely  too  favorable  to  the  soured  cossettes.  He 
finds  that  these  results  are  in  contradiction  of  what  has  as  yet 
been  obtained  in  practice  and  asserts  that  this  is  due  mainly  to 
the  fact  that  the  dried,  fresh  and  soured  cossettes,  when  exam- 


Digestibility 
of  cossettes. 


200      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

ined  had  not  the  same  common  source,  that  is  they  were  not 
from  the  same  beets. 

Morgen  undertook  another  series  of  investigations  with 
Maercker,  taking  this  point  in  consideration,  and  they  obtained, 
for  an  average  6f  their  experiments,  a  coefficient  of  digestibility  of 
86.75  for  the  dried  cossettes,  and  73.02  per  cent,  for  the  soured 
cossettes,  which  means  a  difference  of  18.73  per  cent,  in  favor 
of  the  dried  residuum. 

The  keeping  of  cossettes  reduces  in  a  very  perceptible  degree 
their  nutritive  value.  The  dry  substance  of  dried  cossettes  con- 

q  nn  xy  of*  7c 

tains  9.02  of  protein,  or  -       -  —  7.93  per  cent,  of  digest- 

1UU 

ible  protein,  while  the  siloed  cossettes  with  their  10.61  per  cent. 

10  61  X  73  02 
of  protein  in  the  dry  substance  contain  only  - 

100 

7.75  per  cent,  of  protein  that  may  be  assimilated. 

The  coefficient  of  digestibility  of  protein  of  different  forages 
was  established  by  the  agronomic  station  at  Halle  sur  Saale, 
Germany.  The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  this  data  is  that 
dried  cossettes  far  excel  all  forages  when  considered  from  a  nutri- 
tive standpoint.  In  Germany  this  forage  is  estimated  as  having 
considerable  money  value  owing  to  this  nutritive  quality,  and 
also  for  the  reason  that  cattle  fed  upon  it  appear  to  keep  in  a 
very  healthy  condition.  The  only  element  that  can  reduce  the 
digestibility  of  the  product  is  heat. 

Morgen  determined  an  average  from  three  experiments  upon 
the  digestibility  of  nitrogen,  and  showed  that  it  ran  from 
76. 3  per  cent,  to  79. 1  per  cent,  with  fresh  cossettes  dried  at  a 
temperature  of  from  75  to  85°  C.  Another  experiment,  made 
with  dried  cossettes  at  75  to  85°  C.,  in  which  the  coefficient  of 
assimilation  of  nitrogen  was  78.8,  gave  on  heating  to  125°  to 
130°  C.,  a  lowering  of  the  digestibility  to  65.8  per  cent.,  or  a 
decrease  of  13  per  cent.  These  figures  show  the  importance  of 
carefully  watching  the  dryer,  so  as  to  prevent  the  temperature 
of  the  product  from  rising  above  100°  C. 

Precautions  to       Dry  cossettes  constitute  a  nutrient  for  animals  of  which  they 

feeding.      are  very  fond,  and  it  is  important  to  take  certain  precautionary 

measures  to  prevent  cattle  from  eating  it  to  excess.     Sheep,  for 


PRECAUTIONS  IN  FEEDING.  201 

example,  will  eat  it  with  great  avidity  if  they  are  allowed  to  do 
so.  They  eat  entirely  too  much  of  this  dried  product  and  then 
take  water  into  the  stomach,  which  is  followed  by  an  abnormal 
swelling.  Under  these  circumstances  it  stands  to  reason  that 
serious  complications  will  follow.  It  frequently  happens  that 
sheep  are  strangled  by  swallowing  this  desiccated  residuum  too 
rapidly.  It  is,  however,  easy  to  avoid  such  accidents  by  merely 
mixing  the  cossettes  with  about  40  per  cent,  of  water  and  allow- 
ing the  product  to  swell.  Ritter  mixes  only  16  per  cent,  water. 
Some  recommend  that  the  cossettes  be  well  ground  into  a 
powder.  By  such  precautions  the  product  is  swallowed  with 
ease  and  eaten  with  relish.  However,  when  first  fed  the  dried 
product  may  be  refused,  which  is  probably  caused  by  the  curious 
texture  of  the  forage  that  may  be  unpleasant  to  the  eye,  or  for 
other  reasons;  however,  such  cases  are  the  exception.  After 
several  days  the  animals  become  accustomed  to  the  cossettes 
and  will  eat  all  placed  at  their  disposal.  Up  to  the  present 
time  not  a  single  case  has  been  recorded  where  an  animal  has 
continuously  declined  to  eat  this  dried  residuum. 

Pfeiffer  and  Lehmann  declare  that  when  dried  cossettes  are 
fed  to  an  excess,  they  bring  about  troubles  in  the  intestinal 
canal,  which,  as  we  may  readily  suppose,  diminishes  very 
materially  the  coefficiency  of  digestibility  of  the  fatty  sub- 
stances; and  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  animals  being  fed 
will  increase  in  weight,  there  is  always  danger  of  considerable 
loss  of  nutritive  substances  in  the  droppings  during  over-feeding. 

It  must  be  understood  that  it  is  not  imperative  to  mix  the 
cossettes  with  water,  as  sheep  will  eat  them  in  a  dry  state;  how- 
ever, the  mixing  of  water  as  previously  explained  is  an  advan- 
tage. It  allows  the  cossettes  to  be  more  readily  combined  with 
other  forages,  for,  as  previously  pointed  out,  the  dried  cossettes 
alone  should  not  make  up  the  ration.  Notwithstanding  its  com- 
paratively small  volume  the  product  soon  satisfies  the  animals' 
hunger,  due  possibly  to  the  swelling  of  the  beet  cells  in  the 
presence  of  the  fluids  of  the  stomach,  such  as  gastric  juices,  etc. 
The  quantity  of  this  feed  to  be  given  to  animals  differs  with 
the  object  in  view.  According  to  Mercker  and  Morgen  the 
amounts  may  be  as  follows: 


202  FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

QUANTITY  OF  DRIED  COSSETTES  TO  BE  FED. 


Cattle  fed. 

Normal  rations. 

Maximum  rations. 

Per  diem. 
3       kilos 

Per  diem. 
4  5  kilos. 

Sfppix 

,5           " 

75     " 

4          " 

60    " 

0  33     " 

1  0    " 

1           " 

20     " 

kinds  of  cos- 
settes. 


Experiments  in  In  some  comparative  experiments  coming  under  our  notice 
feeding  different  tnere  were  two  lots  of  three  bulls  each,  fed  upon  the  product  for 
thirty  days,  also  two  lots  of  sheep  of  twenty-two  head  each  were 
submitted  to  the  same  fattening  process  for  forty-six  days.  The 
results  obtained  with  either  fresh  or  dried  cossettes  were  almost 
identical.  Certain  indications,  however,  would  lead  one  to  sup- 
pose that  if  the  experiments  had  extended  over  a  longer  period, 
the  results  would  have  been  even  more  encouraging,  and  pos- 
sibly in  favor  of  the  dried  product.  Apparently  one  part  of 
dried  pulp  is  equal  to  eight  of  fresh  pulp.  Animals  fed  with 
both  pulps  gave  milk  of  the  following  composition: 

COMPOSITION  OF  MILK  FROM  Cows  FED  ON  FRESH  OR  DRIED  COSSETTES. 


Composition  of  milk. 

Fresh  cossettes. 

Dried  cossettes. 

1.04 

1  045 

"Ruttpr  fat  . 

3  90 

6  35 

3  08 

3  00 

7  97 

11  42 

1  10 

1  14 

16  05 

21  61 

83.95 

78  89 

EXPERIMENTS    IN    FEEDING. 


203 


In  other  experiments,  with  24  cows  yielding  between  14  and 
20  quarts  per  head  and  per  diem,  the  feeding  lasted  80  days, 
divided  into  four  periods  of  20  days.  During  the  entire  time  of 
feeding,  all  the  cows  had  regular  rations  of  12  Ibs.  hay,  2.2  flax 
flour,  2.2  cotton  flour,  4.4  Ibs.  arachide  flour,  6.6  Ibs.  barley 
bran,  and  22  Ibs.  oat  straw,  to  which  was  added  during  the  first 
and  fourth  periods,  110  Ibs.  forage  beets,  during  the  second 
period,  17.6  Ibs.  dried  cossettes,  and  1.67  Ibs.  siloed  pulps  dur- 
ing the  third  period. 

The  nutritive  value  of  these  rations  may  be  better  understood 
by  examining  the  table  herewith: 

COMPARATIVE  NUTRITIVE  VALUES  or  RATIONS  VARIED  BY  ADDITION  OF 
DIFFERENT  BEET  PRODUCTS. 


Varied  periods  of 
feeding.  l 

Nitrogenous 
substances. 

Carbohydrates. 

Fatty 
substances. 

1st  and  4th  periods- 

3.15  kilos. 
3  11     " 

13.05  kiios. 
13  09     " 

0.49  kilos. 
0  51     " 

3.14    " 

13.07     " 

0.49     " 

1  See  paragraph  above  for  rations  fed. 

From  which  we  may  conclude  that  apparently  there  was  very 
little  difference  in  the  theoretical  nutritive  value  of  the  combina- 
tion used  in  each  case.  The  practical  results  obtained  showed  that 
the  quantity  and  composition  of  milk  obtained  was  as  follows: 

COMPARATIVE  ANALYSES  OF  MILK  GIVEN  WHEN  DIFFERENT  BEET 
PRODUCTS  WERE  FED. 


Varied  periods  of 
feeding.  l 

Weight  of  milk. 

Composition  of  milk. 

Dry  substances. 

Fatty  substances. 

30.25  Ibs. 
31.00  " 
31.60  " 
26.64  '• 

12.87 
12.88 
12.72 
12.72 

3.51 
3.60 
3.45 
3.45 

See  paragraph  above  for  rations  fed. 


204 


FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


The  forage  beets  produced  inferior  results  to  the  dried  or  siloed 
cossette  residuums.  All  facts  considered,  in  these  special  ex- 
periments everything  appeared  favorable  to  the  siloed  product 
rather  than  the  dried. 

According  to  Vibrans  it  is  impossible  to  feed  as  much  of  the 
dried  cossette  product  as  animals  can  consume.  Experience 
seems  to  show  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  feed  hay  to  animals  in 
conjunction  with  dried  cossettes. 

Maercker  and  Morgen  have  published  considerable  data  on 
their  investigation  relative  to  the  feeding  of  this  product  to 
cattle  and  the  profits  that  resulted.  The  first  experiments  were 
those  made  at  Schlanstedt  with  five  groups  of  oxen.  The  ration 
fed  was  as  follows: 

THREE  EXPERIMENTAL  RATIONS  FED  TO  OXEN  (MAERCKER  &  MORGEN). 


Components  of  Ration. 

Series  I. 

Series  II. 

Series  III. 

20         kilos  l 

5  18    kilo<*  * 

6  93    kilos  2 

30 

30 

30            u 

Hay    

2  5 

2  5 

3  08 

2  84 

2  83       " 

2  27 

0  54 

0  54       *' 

1  35 

1  47 

1  88       " 

Total  

59  20    kilos 

42  53    kilos 

42  18    kilos- 

12  33    kilos 

12  73    kilos 

12  32    kilos 

Assimilated  nitrogenous  sub- 

1  618     " 

1  490     " 

1  471     " 

Assimilated  non-nitrogenous 

6  95       " 

6  93       " 

6  92       " 

Siloed. 


2  Dried. 


The  amount  of  rice  flour  was  decreased  in  the  second  and 
third  series  and  the  hay  ration  was  entirely  done  away  with  in 
the  third  series  so  as  to  give  every  possible  advantage  to  the 
cossettes  and  determine  within  what  limits  they  could  take  the 
place  of  this  forage.  The  amount  of  lupine  used  was  made  to 
vary  so  as  to  keep  the  nitrogenous  substance  up  to  the  desired 
standard.  The  results  are  shown  in  the  table  herewith: 


EXPERIMENTS    IN    FEEDING.  205 

RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTAL  RATIONS  (MAERCKER  &  MORGEN). 


Items  of  Profit. 

Series  I. 

Series  II. 

Series  III. 

Daily  increase  in  weight  
Money  value  of  the  increase. 
Money   value   of   droppings 
considered  as  a  fertilizer.  . 

1.195  kilos. 
118.5  pfennigs. 

38.8         " 

1.377  kilos. 
130.4  pfennigs. 

35.8 

1.438  kilos. 
134.0  pfennigs. 

35.1         " 

Total  

166  2  pfennigs 

1AQ  1       f 

1296        k< 

123  8        " 

118  Q         '• 

Profit  • 

27  7  rjfpnniox 

Af>  n    f 

t^f\  0      f 

The  advantage  IP,  without  doubt,  in  favor  of  dried  cossettes. 
In  other  experiments  made  in  Germany,  six  milch  cows 
were  fed  during  ten  days  with  a  ration  consisting  mainly  of 
siloed  cossettes,  then  ten  days  on  a  ration  of  dried  cossettes,  and 
finally  ten  days  on  soured  cossettes.  These  experiments  are  of 
less  practical  value,  as  the  animals  fed  were  sick  during  the  first 
and  second  periods  of  the  investigation.  Herewith  are  the  re- 
sults of  the  experiments: 


EXPERIMENTAL  RATIONS  FED  TO  Six  Cows. 


Components 
of  ration. 

1st  period. 

3rd  period. 

Average  of 
1st  and  3rd 
periods. 

2nd  period. 

95        kilos  l 

95        kilos  3 

4  51  kilos  2 

30 

30              ' 

QA  0          '• 

Hay   • 

9  5 

2  5          ' 

2  n         " 

Cereal  ball^     

2  0 

2  0          ' 

20         <: 

1  0 

1  0          ' 

10         " 

1    90 

1   98 

1    £Q            * 

9  52 

9  Q5            ' 

1  9^        4t 

Total  .  . 

67.31    kilos. 

67.73    kilos. 

67.52    kilos. 

4=i.84    kilos 

Siloed. 


-  Dried. 


3  Soured. 


206  FEEDING    WITB    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

EXPERIMENTAL  KATIONS  FED  TO  Six  Cows — Continued. 


Components 
of  ration. 

1st  period. 

3rd  period. 

Average  of 
1st  and  3rd 
periods. 

2d  period. 

Containing: 

15  65       u 

16  28       " 

15  97       " 

1584       " 

Digestible     nitrogen- 
ous substances  .... 
Digestible   non-nitro- 
genous substances. 
Production    of    milk 
per  head  and  diem. 
Fatty  substances  
Increase  in  weight  per 
head  and  diem  

1.75       " 
8.41       " 

17.03       " 
0.564     " 

0.068     " 

1.86       " 
8.61       u 

17.97       " 
0.558     " 

0.104     " 

1.81        " 
8.51       " 

17.50       <k 
0.561     " 

0.086     " 

1.80       " 
8.72       " 

17.84       " 

0.547     " 

1.320     " 

Items  of  profit. 

Average  of  1st  and 
3rd  periods. 

2nd  period. 

175  0  pfennigs 

178  4  pfennigs 

Value   of    dropping    considered    as 

38  0        " 

33  9        " 

Total 

213  0   pfennigs 

212  3   pfennigs 

162  5         '• 

155  7 

Profit  <4 

56  6   pfennigs 

The  profits  appear  to  be  very  much  smaller  than  they  should 
be,  but  it  is  important  not  to  overlook  the  increase  in  weight  of 
the  animals  fed.  This  increase,  besides  its  intrinsic  value, 
shows  beyond  cavil  the  healthy  condition  of  the  animals 
during  the  entire  period  of  feeding,  and  this  item  is  of  an  im- 
portance that  cannot  be  estimated  by  figures. 

All  facts  considered,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  dried  re- 
siduum has  a  most  favorable  action  on  milch  cows,  which  has 
also  been  demonstrated  in  the  experiments  of  Kellner  and 
Andra,  who  substituted  27.5  kilos  of  forage  beets  for  4.4  kilos 
of  dried  cossettes,  which  resulted  in  an  increased  milk  produc- 
tion of  0.9  kilos  per  diem. 

Another  interesting  experiment  we  may  mention  is  that  made 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  FEEDING. 


207 


at  Hadmersleben,  Germany,  with  two  series  of  sheep  fed  for  101 
days  with  the  following  rations,  for  ten  animals  per  diem: 

EXPERIMENTAL  RATIONS  FED  TO  TEN  SHEEP  (HADMERSLEBEN,  GERMANY). 


Components  of  ration. 

1st  series. 

2nd  series. 

29  4    kilos  l 

5  45  kilos  * 

19  60    *" 

1960     " 

2  38     " 

2  22     " 

3  00     ' 

3  00    " 

1  47     ' 

1  47     " 

0.88    ' 

1.14     " 

1  79     ' 

0  98    " 

1  74    c 

9  12    *' 

60  66  kilos 

42  98  kilos 

Contents  of  ration: 

13  91     k' 

13  95    " 

Digestible  nitrogenous  substances  •  •  • 
Digestible  non-nitrogenous  substances 

1.63     " 
7.26     " 
46  75     " 

1.67     " 
7.61     " 
29  03     " 

Siloed. 


2  Dried. 


Items  of  profit. 

1st  series. 

2nd  series. 

Money  value  of  increased  weight  for 

QO  2  nfprmios 

107  2  nfpnnijy* 

185          »  « 

21   3           »«• 

Money  value  of  droppings  considered 

41  2          <k 

40  4         " 

Total                  

149  9  pfennigs 

168  9  pfennigs 

120  3         •' 

118  9         '' 

29.6  pfennigs. 

50.0  pfennigs. 

The  last  series  of  tables  herewith  shows  the  economy  and  the 
profits  of  this  system  of  feeding.  Notwithstanding  the  heavy 
percentage  of  water  contained  in  the  soured  cossettes,  sheep,  in 
order  to  quench  their  thirst,  were  obliged  to  drink  water  placed 
at  their  disposal,  which  in  all  cases  was  ad  libitum.  They  con- 
sumed an  additional  1.8  kilo,  per  diem  and  per  capita,  which 
in  other  words  means  61  per  cent,  more  than  the  animals  fed 


208  FEEDING   WITH   SUGAR   BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

with  dry  cossettes.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is  evident 
that  this  enormous  quantity  of  water  must  have  an  important 
influence  on  the  digestibility  of  the  albuminoids  of  the  animals 
being  fed,  influencing  to  a  considerable  extent  the  deposit  of  fat 
and  production  of  muscular  tissues,  which  will  consequently  be 
decreased  in  considerable  proportions. 

The  experiments  of  Maercker  and  Morgen  demonstrate  that 
notwithstanding  the  low  price  at  which  dried  cossettes  may  be 
produced,  there  follows  an  important  increase  in  weight  as  com- 
pared with  that  realized  with  other  feeding  stuffs.  In  these  dis- 
cussions the  enormous  comparative  value  of  the  resulting  manure 
from  the  animals  fed  with  dry  cossettes  is  generally  overlooked, 
and  shows  to  what  extent  these  substances  have  been  digested 
by  the  animals  under  observation.  The  average  of  the  experi- 
ments of  Maercker  and  Morgen  with  sheep  has  shown  that 
there  is  an  increased  profit  of  3.76  marks  per  100  kilos  of  dried 
cossettes;  with  oxen,  3.06  marks;  with  milch  cows,  2.18 
marks. 

Maercker  and  Morgen  show  that  the  average  profit  from  the 
use  of  dried  cossettes  is  21  pfennigs  for  large  cattle  fed,  per  in- 
dividual and  per  diem.  It  has  a  specially  advantageous  effect 
on  working  cattle,  as  they  have  in  their  intestinal  tubes  and 
stomachs  a  moderate  amount  only  of  nutritive  substances,  and 
experiments  and  observations  have  shown  that  the  work  they 
are  able  to  accomplish  is  greater  and  their  general  health  is 
better  than  are  attained  by  animals  fed  with  siloed  and  fresh 
cossettes  resulting  in  full  stomachs. 

Potato  feeds,  such  as  are  used  in  Germany,  for  swine,  may 
advantageously  be  put  aside  in  favor  of  dried  cossettes.  Under 
all  circumstances  it  is  found  desirable  to  submit  the  fodder  to  a 
preliminary  heating  with  hot  water. 

Beneficial  Horses  have  excellent  health  when  fed  with  this  residuum, 
effects.  an(j  Up0n  general  principles  all  animals  without  distinction,  as 
long  experience  has  shown,  derive  great  benefit  from  this  dried 
cossette  feeding.  Many  of  the  complications  that  have  been 
noticed  in  feeding  with  forages  in  general  have  disappeared  when 
this  residuum  has  been  used;  for  example  a  paralysis  of  a 
special  kind  in  sheep.  The  milk  of  sheep  appears  to  be  better, 


ACTUAL    ECONOMY. 


209 


and  the  lambs  are  in  a  more  healthy  condition  than  when  fed 
with  other  forages.  There  is  nothing  surprising  in  this,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  the  milk  is  less  subject  to  alteration  even  in 
the  udder  than  when  siloed  cossettes.  are  fed. 

When  one  substitutes  dried  cossettes  for  intensive  fodders  Actual  economy, 
there  follows  a  much  greater  profit,  as  is  also  shown  by  the  ex- 
periments of  Maercker  and  Morgen.  In  Germany,  100  kilos  of 
oats  cost  17.8  marks  and  contain  8  per  cent,  of  digestible  nitro- 
genous substances  and  53.3  per  cent,  of  digestible  non-nitrogen- 
ous elements.  These  may  be  replaced  by  88.4  kilos  of  dried 
cossettes  and  7.6  kilos  of  cotton  seed  flour,  costing  5.68  marks. 
The  profit  is  consequently  12. 11  marks,  or  68  percent.  Maercker 
and  Morgen  show  that  in  numerous  rations,  where  this  intensive 
forage  is  used,  it  may  be  entirely  replaced  by  the  dried  cos- 
settes, to  which  other  forages  are  added  to  make  up  the  lacking 
elements. 

KATIOXS  FOR  LIVE  STOCK. 


Composition  of 
ration. 

Milch  cows. 

Ration  per 
head  and 
diem. 

Steers. 

Working  oxen. 

Sheep. 

Ration  per 
head  and 
diem. 

Ration  per 
head  and 
diem. 

Ration  for  ten  sheep 
of  a  total  weight  of 
500  kilos. 

Moderate. 

! 

Moderate. 

cj 

Moderate. 

! 

o 

I 

Kilos. 
1.50 

7.50 
2.50 
4.00 
333 

7.00 

0.25 
1.00 

Kilos. 
1.75 

800 
2.50 
4.00 
7.50 

2.50 
1.03 

1.74 
1.00 

B 

! 

Kilos. 
1.50 

7.50 
2.50 
4.00 
3.33 

2.50 
20.00 
1.29 

0.54 
1.00 

Digestible  nitrogenous 
substances  .  .  . 

Kilos. 
1.25 

6.25 
2.50 
4.00 
3.00 

3.43 
1.14 

Kilos. 
1.75 

7.00 
2.50 
4.00 
3.00 
1.00 

3.14 
2.03 

Kilos. 
1.50 

7.50 
2.50 
4.00 
5.00 

3.33 
1.50 

Kilos. 
1.75 

8.00 
2.50 
4.00 
5.00 

3.97 
1.94 

Kilos. 

1.00 

6.25 
2.50 
4.00 
4.00 

2.79 
0.56 

Kilos. 
1.50 

7.50 
2.50 
4.00 
4.00 

4.70 
1.28 

Digestible    non-nitro- 
genous substances.  . 

Hav    

Straw 

Dry  cossettes  
Palm  flour  

Potato  distillery  wash. 
Wheat  bran 

Cotton  oil  cake  
Peanut  oil  cake  
Poppv  oil  cake  

14 


CHAPTER  III. 

Early  Prejudice  in  the  United  States  Against  Feeding 
Cattle  with  Sugar  Beets  and  Residuum  Cossettes. 

RESPECTING  American  experience  in  diffusion  pulp  utilization, 
we  would  say  that  the  farmers  were  at  first  opposed  to  it;  and 
the  total  product  of  the  diffusion  batteries  of  the  Portland 
factory,  for  the  first  year's  campaign,  was  thrown  into  the  bay. 
In  subsequent  years  a  portion  of  it  was  sold;  those  who  experi- 
mented with  it  give  some  valuable  testimonials  regarding  its 
nourishing  value.  Messrs.  George  Blansee  &  Co.,  of  Cumber- 
land, for  example,  estimated  that  it  was  worth,  as  a  fodder  for 
cattle,  at  least  $5  a  ton.  The  difficulty  with  which  that  com- 
pany had  to  contend  may  be  judged  from  a  letter  a  New  Eng- 
land farmer  writes  to  one  of  our  weekly  papers,  as  follows: 
"The  Maine  Beet  Sugar  Company  expected  the  farmers  to  buy 
back  the  pulp  at  $2  per  ton,  but  could  not  make  them  see  it! 
The  pulp  of  potatoes  *  at  the  starch  factory  is  worthless,  and  is 
shoveled  into  the  mill-race.  Why  should  that  of  the  beet  be 
any  better  ?"  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  communications  of  this 
character  should  receive  public  attention  through  the  press  or 
otherwise,  and  the  writer  would  have  been  only  too  glad  not  to 
call  attention  to  them,  but  it  seems  best  to  explain  or  rectify 
such  statements.  In  the  first  place,  the  shoveling  of  potato 
pulp  into  the  mill-race  is  a  wasteful  practice,  as  this  refuse  has 
a  decidedly  practical  value  as  a  fodder.  It  is  in  Europe  gener- 
ally combined  with  other  roots,  and  in  no  case  is  it  thrown 
away.  These  are  facts  that  the  farmer  quoted  above  has  over- 

*In  France  this  potato  pulp  has  many  industrial  applications,  the  most  im- 
portant being  the  manufacture  of  poudrette  for  manuring  purposes.  It  is  also 
largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  tobacco  boxes;  it  is  also  mixed  with  coal, 
etc. ,  for  fuel.  If,  after  boiling,  it  is  applied  to  cotton  or  woolen  goods,  it  will 
give  them  a  rich  brown  hue. 

(210) 


EARLY    PREJUDICE    IN    UNITED    STATES.  211 

looked,  and  in  his  ignorance  and  prejudice  he  advocates  that  a 
still  more  valuable  pulp  from  the  beet  should  meet  the  same 
fate  as  that  from  potatoes.  If  this  pulp  utilization  was  a  new 
idea,  the  question  might  be  open  to  discussion;  but  the  practice 
has  existed  in  France  for  the  past  seventy  years,  and  far  from 
the  diffusion  pulp  being  refused  by  the  farmers — as  perhaps  the 
above  quoted  correspondence  would  convey — they  are  unwilling 
to  grow  beets  unless  a  certain  proportion  of  the  weight  is  re- 
turned in  pulp,  for  which  they  pay  a  reasonable  price.  If  the 
Maine  Beet  Sugar  Company  was  unfortunate  enough  to  have  this 
contention  with  farmers  who  are  unable  to  see  what  is  to  their 
own  interest,  that  is  no  reason  why  all  American  factories  should 
have  the  same  difficulty.  In  conclusion  it  should  be  said, 
that  the  refuse  from  a  starch  factory  has  no  more  relation  to  the 
secondary  products  of  a  beet-sugar  factory  than  the  primitive 
roots  have  to  each  other.  If,  at  the  first,  the  nourishing  equiva- 
lents of  the  beet  and  the  potato  had  been  compared,  all  would 
have  been  in  favor  of  the  latter;  but  the  various  processes  of 
starch  manufacture  have  attained  a  greater  degree  of  perfection 
than  those  of  the  product  of  the  beet.  The  problem  of  starch 
manufacture  is  far  easier,  because  the  numerous  saline  difficulties 
are  not  presented.  This  becomes  more  apparent  when  the  re- 
sults obtained  at  numerous  starch  factories  are  considered;  the 
refuse  from  those  at  Watertown,  for  example  containing  only 
0.01  to  0.1  per  cent,  of  the  original  starch  found  in  the  potato. 
At  the  Delaware  factory  the  demand  for  the  beet  pulp  was  so 
great  that  the  company  was  unable  to  supply  even  one-half  of 
what  might  have  been  sold.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
Franklin  Company.  The  Alvarado  factory  at  first  was  not  so 
fortunate,  but  California  farmers  now  commence  to  appreciate 
the  value  of  this  refuse,  as  is  demonstrated  by  the  dairying  ex- 
periment of  the  current  campaign. 

Of  the  annoying  prejudices  against  pulps  and  beets  we  may 
mention  one  coming  under  our  notice  in  the  Northern  States, 
where  it  was  asserted  that  the  amount  of  milk  a  cow  would  give 
per  day  would  be  diminished,  and  the  milk  would  have  a  taste 
that  might  or  might  not  be  objectionable.  Another  example: 
One  of  our  friends  at  Bryn  Mawr.  near  Philadelphia,  was  feed- 


212      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

ing  an  infant  with  the  milk  of  a  cow,  and  positively  declined  to 
give  beets  in  any  amount  to  the  animal  that  supplied  the  ele- 
ments of  existence  to  his  beloved  child,  contending  that  the 
result  might  be  disastrous  to  the  infant's  constitution,  and  also 
asserting  there  could  be  no  possible  doubt  that  the  milk  was 
directly  acted  upon  by  the  food  the  animal  consumed.  There 
was  nothing  new  in  all  this,  but  there  was  error  when  bad 
qualities  were  attributed  to  the  milk  yielded  by  cows  fed  upon 
green  roots.  There  is  scarcely  any  limit  to  similar  examples, 
the  patience  of  the  reader  must  not  be  overtaxed  by  relating 
them;  it  need  only  be  said  that  they  have  little  force  of  argu- 
ment. Similar  theories  were  upheld  against  the  potato  prior  to 
its  introduction  to  our  markets.  After  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was 
successful  in  convincing  the  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain  of  its 
importance,  it  became,  and  is  at  present,  the  principal  article  of 
subsistence  in  Ireland;  and  when  that  crop  fails  there,  famine 
is  the  usual  result.  The  same  rule  applies  now  to  the  beet,  and 
we  can  positively  assert  that,  if  it  were  no  longer  grown  in  the 
northern  parts  of  France,  it  would  give  rise  to  a  serious  panic  in 
that  country.  The  number  of  cattle  and  the  resulting  revenue 
from  their  sale  would  necessarily  diminish  for  the  want  of  a 
substitute  for  the  usual  food,  and  the  farming  population  would 
be  the  sufferers.  The  prosperity  usually  so  great  in  the  districts 
named  would  revert  to  the  condition  existing  before  these 
valuable  roots  were  grown. 

In  the  foregoing  an  instance  of  American  prejudice  as  it  ex- 
isted sixteen  years  ago  was  given,  and  a  recent  and  very  extraordi- 
nary conclusion  arrived  at  in  Minnesota  is  quoted.  The  following 
items  taken  from  the  local  press  show  in  a  most  characteristic 
manner  the  complete  ignorance  of  certain  officials  about  sub- 
jects they  are  called  upon  to  discuss. 

In  the  Minneapolis  Tribune  we  read: 

"  It  is  quite  likely  that  the  health  commissioner,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  dairy  and  food  department  of  the  State,  will  take 
action  against  the  dairymen  who  are  feeding  their  milch  cows 
refuse  from  the  beet-sugar  factory  at  St.  Louis  Park. 

"The  commissioner  took  steps  in  the  matter  several  months 
ago,  but  allowed  it  to  drop  because  his  authority  in  the  prem- 


EARLY    PREJUDICE    IN    UNITED    STATES.  213 

ises  was  questioned.  Now,  however,  he  is  free  to  act  as  he 
pleases,  because  of  an  act  passed  by  the  last  legislature,  entitled, 
'An  Act  to  prevent  fraud  in  the  sale  of  dairy  products,'  etc., 
which  act  places  beet-sugar  pulp  in  the  same  category  as  distil- 
lery waste,  etc.,  and  prohibits  its  use  as  food  for  cows  in  any 
part  of  the  State  of  Minnesota. 

"  Many  authorities  claim  that  beet  pulp  is  a  wholesome  food 
for  cattle,  but  the  dairy  and  food  department  of  Minnesota  ap- 
parently does  not,  and  some  action,  therefore,  may  be  looked 
for." 

The  Minneapolis  Journal  says: 

"The  point  has  been  generally  overlooked,  but  the  last  legis- 
lature did  single  out  sugar-beet  refuse  for  discrimination  and 
put  it  on  the  forbidden  list.  H.  F.  No.  499,  entitled  "An 
Act  to  prevent  fraud  in  the  sale  of  dairy  products,  etc.,' 
drawn  by  the  dairy  and  food  department  and  expressing  its 
ideas  as  to  the  necessary  laws  for  the  preservation  of  the  dairy 
industry  and  the  public  health,  under  chapter  5  distinctly  places 
sugar-beet  pulp  in  the  same  category  as  distillery  waste,  etc., 
and  prohibits  its  use  as  food  for  cows  in  any  part  of  the  State. 
The  only  qualification  is  that  it  may  be  used  if  properly  pre- 
served in  silos. 

"So  far  as  known  none  has  been  so  preserved,  and  so  far  as 
it  has  been  used  it  has  come  from  the  big  pile  lying  alongside 
the  sugar  factory.  Under  the  law  the  pulp  in  its  present  con- 
dition is  not  being  properly  preserved,  and  milkmen  who  use 
it  are  doing  so  at  their  peril.  The  commissioner  or  anybody 
else  who  is  convinced  that  the  public  health  is  being  endangered 
by  its  use  can  take  steps  to  stop  it  if  so  inclined.  *  *  * 

"The  head  of  the  dairy  department  took  some  pains  last 
winter  to  look  into  the  matter.  *  *  *  I  will  admit  that  the 
smell  from  the  decaying  surface  of  the  pulp  piles  was  not  appe- 
tizing. But  there  is  no  reason  in  the  world  why  a  few  inches 
underneath  it  should  not  be  as  fully  preserved  as  if  kept  in  an 
air-tight  silo.  There  will  be  more  or  less  fermentation,  probably 
the  same  as  in  the  silo,  but  that  fact  in  no  way  detracts  from 
the  wholesomeness  of  the  stuff  as  a  food  for  milch  cows  or  any 
other  stock.  The  decayed  pulp  on  the  surface  is,  of  course, 
wholly  unfit  for  use. 


214  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

"The  chemist  of  the  Department  of  Animal  Husbandry  took 
practically  the  same  view  of  the  case.  He  was  unaware  of  the 
fact  that  the  law  had  declared  against  the  use  of  beet  pulp,  and 
thought  it  was  a  mistake  to  do  so  on  the  ground  that  the  facts 
did  not  warrant  such  a  law7. 

"Nevertheless,  with  all  the  authorities  seemingly  against 
them,  it  is  understood  that  the  dairy  and  food  department  of 
the  State  is  prepared  to  enforce  the  law  as  it  stands  on  the 
statutes. ' ' 

Numerous  similar  examples  could  be  given  of  tops  and  leaves, 
etc.,  being  declared  worthless  for  cattle  feeding,  the  milk  and 
butter  being  said  to  have  unpleasant  taste  and  flavor. 

It  has  been  apparently  overlooked  that  frequently  these  pro- 
ducts had  been  poorly  siloed  and  when  fed  were  in  a  semi- 
decomposed  condition. 

A  very  recent  example  is  given  in  Bulletin  No.  74  of  the  Utah 
experiment  station,  the  title  of  which  is  "Lead  in  sugar-beet 
pulp."  We  extract  from  its  pages  as  follows:  "Though  the 
intrinsic  feeding  value  of  sugar-beet  pulp  is  so  well  established, 
there  come  to  the  station  frequent  inquiries  concerning  the  pos- 
sible danger  in  the  use  of  beet  pulp  as  a  stock  feed.  Com- 
plaints are  sometimes  made  that  cattle  are  sick  and  dying,  and 
as  the  only  unusual  condition  was  the  beet  pulp  that  they 
were  receiving,  the  blame  was  unjustly  attributed  to  the  use 
of  that  food.  It  was  discovered  that  beet  pulp  had  been 
shipped'  in  cars  that  had  been  used  for  hauling  lead  ore, 
and  that  the  particles  of  ore  remaining  in  the  imperfectly 
cleaned  cars  had  become  mixed  with  the  pulp,  were  eaten 
by  the  stock  and  had  resulted  in  numerous  cases  of  lead 
poisoning.  The  beet  pulp  should  be  shipped  only  in  wagons 
or  cars  that  have  been  thoroughly  cleansed.  In  Utah,  the  dan- 
ger from  contamination  with  lead  and  other  ores  that  remain  in 
railroad  freight  cars  is  very  great."  This  difficulty  could  in  a 
large  measure  be  overcome  by  introducing  a  suitable  dryer  at 
the  factory,  as  dried  pulps  in  bags  would  not  be  contaminated 
by  exterior  influences.  Argue  as  one  may  the  fact  remains  that 
there  exists  great  carelessness  in  the  shipping,  and  as  a  result 
the  general  utilization  of  this  valuable  residuum  will  be  very 


EARLY    EXPERIMENTS    AT    CHIXO.  215 

considerably  retarded.  Many  fanners  do  not  seek  for  the  cause, 
but  are  content  to  observe  facts,  their  argument  evidently  now 
being  that  beet  pulp  contains  lead  ores  and  should  not  be  used 
for  cattle  feeding.  The  intelligent  feeder  will  avail  himself  of 
the  Utah  experience  and  insist  upon  a  hitherto  unknown  care 
in  cleaning  cars  that  are  to  be  used  for  the  transportation  of  the 
product  from  the  factory  to  the  farm. 

In  California  the  question  of  feeding  cossettes  to  cattle  has  Successful  intro- 
become  very  important.     Among  the  early  experiments  we  may  Auction  of  pulp 
mention  those  near  Moro  Coso,  where  success  is  assured.     After   feeding  in  the 
one  year's  keeping  the  siloed  product  was  so  hard  that  it  could 
be  cut  with  a  knife.    Cattle  showed  greater  preference  for  it  than 
for  any  other  fodder.     The  silo  pits  used  are  planked  on  both 
sides  and  bottom,  with  drainage  box  beneath.   When  the  pits  are 
filled  the-  upper  surface  is  covered  with  straw.     Arrangements 
are  said  to  have  been  made  to  use  the  sand  hills  for  siloing,  and 
to  feed  the  pulp  this  year. 

Efforts  made  at  sun-drying  beet  residuum  did  not  prove  a 
success.  The  experiments  at  Chino  in  beet  feeding  are  not 
sufficiently  far  advanced  to  report  any  special  results.  It  is 
interesting,  however,  to  call  attention  to  some  efforts  made  at 
the  Linwood  dairy  of  feeding  bran  and  alfalfa  with  fresh  beet 
pulp. 

At  a  later  period  Mr.  Gird  took  up  the  question  on  a  very  Early  experiments 
thorough    basis.       At    one    time    he    wrote    that   the    steers     at  Chino. 
fattened  were  brought  from  Arizona  and  fed  on  siloed  'pulp  and 
hay,  in  the  ratio  of  about  5  pounds  of  chopped  hay  to  60  or  70 
pounds  of  siloed  pulp.     It  is  recommended  not  to  use  the  beet 
pulp  until  it  has  been  in  silos  for  at  least  60  days. 

An  interesting  example  may  be  given  of  the  excellent  effects 
to  be  expected  from  feeding  beet  pulp  to  cattle.  During  the 
campaign  about  60  wandering  cattle  were  brought  to  the  ranch; 
they  were  thin  and  in  very  poor  condition;  "  they  are  now," 
says  Mr.  Gird,  "as  fine  as  any  cattle  I  ever  saw." 

At  first,  they  were  fed  on  raw  pulp,  and  afterwards  on  the 
siloed  pulp,  when  the  fresh  product  was  exhausted  at  the  end  of 
the  campaign.  "They  did  much  better  on  the  siloed  material 
than  on  the  fresh,"  continues  Mr.  Gird,  "I  find  that  pulp, 


216  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

either  crude  as  it  comes  from  the  factory  or  after  it  is  siloed, 
is  the  best  sheep  feed  I  have  ever  used.  With  a  very  small 
amount  of  whole  straw  or  hay  with  the  beet  pulp,  the  sheep 
fatten  surprisingly  soon,  and  their  meat  is  very  fine.  Six 
weeks  are  sufficient  to  make  a  sheep  as  fat  as  needful,  and 
as  profitable  and  agreeable  to  use  as  mutton  can  be,  and  the 
trouble  of  feeding  them  is  but  little.  As  to  dairy  cows,  only  60 
pounds  of  siloed  pulp  are  fed  per  diem." 

"Although  in  the  fall  of  the  year  the  cows  are  by  no  means 
fresh,  still  they  are  doing  as  well  as  they  would  in  the  spring 
season  on  the  best  of  green  grass;  the  butter  is  of  a  fine  quality, 
naturally  hard  and  not  in  the  least  oily,  as  is  the  case  with 
butter  from  alfalfa-fed  cows;  in  fact,  the  butter  is  of  a  superior 
quality  to  any  I  have  made  from  other  classes  of  feed," 

Mr.  Gird  further  says:  "  I  have  about  1,000  cattle  in  the  pens, 
and  am  feeding  as  above  stated.  They  are  doing  finely  and  take 
to  the  feed  in  the  course  of  about  a  week,  when  they  seem  to 
eat  it  with  more  relish  than  anything  that  can  be  placed  before 
them.  I  think  it  important  to  chop  the  hay,  and  intimately 
mix  it  with  the  pulp.  I  am  using  cornstalks,  and  by  mixing 
with  the  pulp  in  this  manner  they  eat  every  particle,  and 
nothing  is  wasted." 

"My  silo  is  500  feet  long,  60  wide  and  10  deep;  the  pulp 
is  delivered  into  it  from  cars  run  on  a  trestle  and  taken  out 
on  two  racks  laid  on  the  bottom  of  the  silo  on  each  side  of  the 
trestle,  w.hich  I  find  a  very  convenient  plan.  I  have  from  10,000 
to  12,000  tons  of  pulp  in  the  silo  now  in  magnificent  condition; 
the  cossettes  (after  having  been  freed  from  most  of  the  moisture 
by  drains  and  other  appliances)  have  about  the  consistence  of 
old  cheese." 

In  a  speech  before  the  Dairymen's  Association  of  Southern 
California,  Mr.  Gird  expressed  himself  as  follows:  "My  ex- 
perience has  been,  that  the  dairy  cattle  will  produce  about  the 
the  same  amount  of  butter,  and  of  even  better  quality,  when 
fed  upon  beet  pulp  than  upon  the  best  grass  of  pasture  land. 
Late  in  the  winter  of  last  year,  when  grass  was  exceedingly 
good,  after  having  fed  pulp  up  to  the  time  when  it  gave  out,  my 
dairy  foreman  informed  me  that  the  amount  of  butter  was 


EXPERIMENTS    AT    OXNARD.  217 

reduced  nearly  one-third  in  the  week  after  stopping  the  feeding 
of  beet  pulp."  *  *  * 

"  On  December  16,  1893,  I  put  20  steers  in  a  corral  by  them- 
selves, and  fed  them  each  about  70  pounds  pulp  per  day,  with 
about  five  or  six  pounds  rough  hay  or  straw.  *  *  *  They 
weighed  the  day  they  were  put  in  the  corral  40,465  Ibs.,  and 
were  fed  on  pulp  for  48  days.  On  February  2,  1894,  they 
were  taken  out  and  weighed,  their  total  being  43,125  Ibs.,  or  a 
gain  in  48  days  of  2,660  Ibs.;  this  was  133  Ibs.  each,  which  is 
very  good.  *  *  * 

"I  have  a  silo  calculated  to  hold  18,000  or  20,000  tons  of 
pulp,  being  merely  an  immense  trench  dug  in  the  ground,  60 
feet  wide,  10  feet  deep  and  about  500  feet  long.  *  *  *  I  add  a 
very  small  amount  of  salt  to  the  pulp  while  being  siloed.  *  *  * 
The  ease  with  which  this  pulp  can  be  siloed  and  kept,  is  the 
great  point  in  its  favor,  as  it  not  only  practically  siloes  itself, 
but  becomes  better  as  it  gets  older."  *  *  * 

Xo  better  evidence  could  be  given  of  the  increasing  demand  Experiments  at 
for  the  residuum  beet  cossettes  than  the  description  given  of  the  Oxnard. 
Oxnard  stock  yards  as  described  in  the  Courier.  They  were 
built  in  1900,  and  there  are  four,  the  two  larger  ones  being 
on  an  average  275  feet  long,  45  feet  wide  and  9  feet  deep,  and 
the  two  smaller  ones  250  feet  long,  35  feet  wide  and  9  feet  deep. 
The  sides  are  sloping  and  the  pulp  is  filled  in  to  a  level  with  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  The  two  smaller  ones  were  the  only  ones 
filled  in  1900,  and  contained  224  cars  of  pulp  with  an  average 
weight  of  35  tons  to  the  car,  making  the  amount  of  pulp  stored 
approximately  6000  tons;  this  means  the  weight  when  first  put 
into  the  excavations — it  shrinks  about  one- third  by  the  time 
it  is  fed  to  stock.  The  yards  are  north  of  the  silos,  and  are 
divided  into  four  rows  of  large  corrals,  between  which  the 
cars  run.  There  are  twenty-three  of  these  corrals,  and  ten 
mangers  of  pulp  troughs  in  each  one  just  inside  the  fence  by 
the  car  track.  Nine  of  them  are  filled  with  pulp  and  the  last 
one  with  salt.  At  the  side  of  each  corral  opposite  the  places 
where  the  pulp  is  fed,  hay  and  straw  are  placed.  The  cars  which 
contain  8  tons  of  pulp  are  drawn  up  the  track  between  the 
corrals  and  the  pulp  is  unloaded  into  the  troughs  with  forks.  In 


218  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

this  way  100  Ibs.  pulp  and  14  Ibs.  of  straw  from  wagons  on  the 
other  side  are  fed  to  each  animal  each  day.     The  ratio  in  1899 
was  10J  Ibs.  of  straw  and  112  Ibs.  of  pulp  to  each  animal.     The 
corrals  are  built  on  sandy  coast-land,  and  are  well  drained. 
Experiments  at      At  Watsonville  several  thousand  cows  are  fed  upon  siloed 
Watsonville,  Cal.  cossettes,  which  is  an  important  progress  as  compared  with  the 
first  years  of  the  factory's  existence.     The  residuum  costs  about 
one  dollar  delivered  as  it  is  used,  and  this  includes  loading, 
hauling,  etc. 

A  recent  government  report  states:  "There  was  a  time  when 
the  Pacific  Slope  used  to  call  upon  the  Mississippi  Valley 
for  her  butter  and  upon  the  Eastern  States  and  New  England 
for  her  cheese,  but  since  the  introduction  of  the  beet  sugar 
industry  California  has  rapidly  forged  to  the  front  as  a  dairy 
State.  A  large  part  of  this  change  has  been  brought  about  by 
the  introduction  of  beet  pulps  as  food  for  the  dairy.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  examples  of  this  fact  will  be  found  at  Watson- 
ville, Cal.  Dairies  have  sprung  up  in  all  directions  in  that 
vicinity.  Milk  trains  are  running  to  San  Francisco,  and  the 
dairy  interests  in  that  vicinity  are  almost  wholly  the  result  of 
pulp  feeding.  *  *  *  It  happens  that  the  creameries  there  pre- 
ceded the  sugar  factories." 

A  herd  of  200  milch  cows  kept  near  a  beet-sugar  factory 
about  40  miles  south  of  San  Francisco,  is  given  a  daily  ration  of 
60  Ibs.  pulp,  5  Ibs.  of  mixed  ground  grain  and  a  little  hay. 
The  cows  milked  averaged  almost  two  gallons  each  per  day. 
The  milk  is  shipped  to  a  dealer  in  San  Francisco,  who  pays  12^ 
cents  per  gallon  for  it  the  year  through.  The  production  is 
greatest  from  February  to  May.  Butter  made  from  milk  of  this 
herd  for  experimental  export  was  found  to  have  exceedingly 
good  body,  a  satisfactory  flavor  and  an  apparently  first  class 
keeping.  Near  Watsonville  100  Ibs.  are  fed  to  each  animal. 

It  is  said  that  beet  tops  from  certain  California  beet  fields 
sell  for  $3.50  to  $4.00  per  acre  on  the  ground.  Many  farm- 
ers fed  the  tops  alone.  Experience  seems  to  show  that  with 
the  addition  of  bran  the  results  obtained  are  more  satisfactory. 
Only  in  some  exceptional  cases  were  there  complaints  respect- 
ing the  flavor  imparted  to  butter  through  top  feeding.  An 


- 
CALIFORNIA    EXPERIMENT    STATION.  219 

example  of  this  top  feeding  may  be  given  of  a  dairyman  who 
brought  his  entire  herd  of  90  grade  Durham  and  Holstein  cows 
to  the  farm  when  he  had  bought  the  privilege  of  using  the 
tops.  The  owner  stated  that  their  milk  yield  doubled  in  a 
short  time.  The  beet  tops  in  some  cases  are  fed  several  months 
in  the  year.  The  butter  from  top-fed  cows  may  be  packed  in 
rolls  and  covered  with  brine  and  be  kept  for  months. 

A  correspondent  of  the  California  experiment  station  expresses  Conclusions  of 
himself  as  follows:  "It  would  be  difficult  to  economically  feed  the  California 
pulp  away  from  the  factory,  as  the  transportation  and  handling 
are  quite  expensive.  Factories  sell  pulp  at  from  10  to  25  cents 
per  ton,  the  former  price  having  been  the  custom  when  taken 
away  from  the  factory,  the  latter  when  conveniences  and  facili- 
ties for  feeding  cattle  have  been  furnished  at  or  near  the  factory. 
I  doubt  any  profitable  use  of  pulp  for  beet  feeding  at  over  25 
cents  per  ton.  At  this  price  and  the  usual  value  of  grain  and 
hay  or  straw,  it  will  cost  from  $9.00  to  $12.00  per  head  to  put 
the  animal  in  a  good  marketable  condition.  *  *  *  I  believe  that 
small  farmers  who  do  their  own  work  can  functionalize  cattle 
and  fatten  them  and  sell  at  a  profit."  As  for  dairy  cattle  feed- 
ing, it  is  claimed  that  20  to  25  Ibs.  per  head  daily  is  a  sufficient 
amount  of  pulp  for  a  dairy  cow,  and  to  it  there  should  be  added 
25  to  30  Ibs.  of  uncut  hay  and  5  pounds  of  middlings.  Another 
dairyman  of  some  importance  does  not  hesitate  to  feed  80  Ibs. 
per  diem,  combined  with  6  to  7  Ibs.  of  hay  and  6  Ibs.  mixed 
"chop"  feed.  A  well  known  authority  declares  that  the 
climate  of  California  is  not  the  most  suitable  for  feeding  pur- 
poses, especially  in  winter.  Another  correspondent  advances 
views  that  are  of  considerable  interest:  "  When  cattle  are  once 
started  on  pulp  feed,  particularly  when  they  are  to  be  fattened 
for  beef,  it  is  advisable  to  continue  them  at  that  until  fully  fat, 
and  then  slaughter  them.  If  cattle  have  been  fed  on  this  feed 
for  a  season,  it  is  highly  advisable,  if  they  have  reached  the 
desired  stage,  not  to  take  them  on  green  pasture,  as  this  affects 
them  seriously." 

Messrs.  Jaffa  and  Leroy  Anderson,  discussing  the  question  of 
cossette  feeding  from  a  California  point  of  view,  say  that  cos- 
settes  when  fed  in  connection  with  other  dry  feed  not  only  serve 


220  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

to  keep  the  digestion  in  a  healthful  condition,  but  add  materi- 
ally to  the  store  of  actual  food  substance.  It  may  be  that  25  to 
to  30  Ibs.  per  day  of  pulp  will  induce  as  large  a  flow  of  milk  as 
80  Ibs.  per  day  when  the  rest  of  the  feed  is  dry;  the  idea  be- 
ing that  the  lesser  quantity  gives  the  cow  all  the  succulent  food 
and  change  of  diet  which  she  really  requires  for  the  best  pro- 
duction. When  the  pulp  must  be  hauled  a  long  distance  and 
the  cost  of  transportation  is  therefore  great,  it  would  undoubt- 
edly be  unwise  to  feed  it  in  larger  amounts  than  just  to  give  the 
necessary  succulence  to  the  ration,  and  25  Ibs.  is  probably  suffi- 
cient for  this  purpose.  But  when  the  dairy  is  situated  adjacent 
to  the  sugar  factory,  as  at  Alvarado,  it  might  pay  to  feed  the 
pulp  in  much  larger  quantities. 

In  California  the  general  feeding  with  residuum  cossettes  has 
on  the  whole  been  very  satisfactory,  and  a  very  extended  trial 
has  been  given.  The  allowance  per  diem  is  80  to  100  Ibs.  per 
1,000  Ibs.  live  weight.  In  some  cases  10  to  12  Ibs.  of  lima  bean 
straw  combined  with  the  residuum  have  given  satisfactory  re- 
sults; in  others,  10  to  15  Ibs.  uncut  hay  and  25  to  50  Ibs.  finely 
rolled  barley.  The  fattening  lasts  about  90  to  100  days.  In 
one  case  8,000  head  of  beef  cattle  were  fed  for  four  months.  It 
was  found  that  the  meat  from  pulp-fed  cattle  was  very  much 
better  than  the  alfalfa.  "The  meat  was  of  fine  flavor,  good 
color,  marbleized,  and  killing  very  white  as  to  fat."  The  opin- 
ions as  to  the  value  of  the  residuum  per  ton  is  very  varied,  some 
saying  50  cents  while  others  place  the  price  at  one  dollar. 

The  California  experiment  station  says  that  "the  value  of 
tops  for  feeding  purposes  may  be  estimated  at  SI. 58  while  for  fer- 
tilizing purposes  they  would  be  worth  $1.65.  It  is  declared  that 
if  tops  are  used  as  food  and  the  manure  is  saved,  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  fertilizing  value  of  the  original  substance  is  still 
retained.  While  this  is  true  theoretically,  it  is  hardly  ever  so 
practically,  particularly  with  reference  to  the  nitrogen,  the  most 
costly  of  the  fertilizing  elements.  In  very  few  instances,  unless 
the  animals  are  pastured,  is  the  urine  saved  to  the  soil,  and  this 
part  of  the  excreta  contains  the  major  part  of  the  nitrogen.  The 
nitrogen  in  the  manure  is  not  by  any  means  all  available,  at 
best  not  more  than  50  per  cent.,  and  in  most  cases  not  even  so 


CALIFORNIA    EXPERIMENT    STATION.  221 

much.  On  this  basis  the  fertilizing  value  of  the  manure  would 
be  about  80  cents  (three-fourths  of  the  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  and  one-fourth  of  the  nitrogen).  This  added  to  the  value 
as  food,  $1.58,  increases  the  net  value  to  $2.38  and  the  differ- 
ence (73  cents)  between  this  sum  and  the  fertilizing  value,  is 
fully  made  up  in  the  green  manurial  value  of  the  vegetable 
matter  in  the  tops."  The  California  station  does  not  recom- 
mend the  tops  for  dairies  that  supply  milk  to  be  consumed  as 
such  on  account  of  the  bitter  taste  imparted  to  the  milk.  "  Ex- 
periments in  feeding  sugar-beet  cossettes  were  not  numerous, 
but  the  herd  fed  during  a  period  of  ten  weeks  showed  that  when 
no  beet  pulp  was  used,  the  cows  ate  on  an  average  about  20  Ibs. 
of  hay  per  head  daily  in  addition  to  8  Ibs.  of  grain,  while  when 
eating  beet  pulp,  the  daily  consumption  of  hay  varied  from  6  to 
10  Ibs.  The  beet  pulp  seemed  to  impart  no  foreign  or  disagree- 
able flavor  to  the  milk.  The  milk  was  delivered  daily  to  cus- 
tomers in  Berkeley  and  no  complaint  was  made.  The  effect  of 
the  pulp  upon  the  flow  of  milk  was  on  the  whole  beneficial. 
Most  of  the  cows  were  decreasing  in  yield  up  to  the  time  when 
we  began  to  feed  beet  pulp,  after  which  all  increased  in  quan- 
tity, and  continued  to  hold  out  well  until  the  beet  pulp  was  ex- 
hausted when  there  was  a  noticeable  decrease."  The  official 
report  of  the  notes  upon  dairying  in  California  says  pulp  has  a 
tendency  to  fatten  and  is  given  to  beef  cattle  without  any  other 
food,  but  for  milch  cows  its  effect  is  found  to  be  best  when  used 
with  a  little  grain  or  hay.  Without  the  latter  it  is  supposed  to 
produce  a  thin  and  watery  milk.  When  pulp  is  fed  in  consid- 
erable quantity  the  animals  do  not  care  for  water  and  may  go 
for  months  without  drink.  A  feeder  who  has  been  using  this  by- 
product for  several  years  complains  that  when  his  cows  have 
been  fed  for  a  long  time  on  pulp  their  calves  are  likely  to  come 
weak  and  troubled  with  sores. 

In  Nebraska  the  subject  of  feeding  beet  pulps  to  cattle  is  being 
very  generally  agitated,  and  farmers  who  have  given  the  matter 
a  trial  are  pleased  with  the  results  obtained.  The  fact  that  very 
little  cotton-seed  meal,  oil  cake,  etc.,  is  used  in  rations  for 
milch  cows  does  not  prove  that  these  are  not  beneficial.  Many 
other  by-products  may  take  their  place  when  heavy  feeding  is 


222      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

desired.  The  siloed  pulp  analyzed  by  the  Nebraska  station  had 
the  following  composition:  Water  88.64;  acidity  0.19;  dry 
matter  11.36;  ether  extract. 09;  crude  protein  1.24:  crude  fibre 
2.94;  nitrogen-free  extract  6.69;  ash  0.39. 

Experience  at  At  Grand  Island,  Neb.,  a  stock  feeder  who  has  had  con- 
Grand  Island.Neb.  siderable  experience  with  residuum  cossettes  says  that  when 
the  feeding  commenced  he  fed  for  several  days  20  to  25  Ibs. 
of  pulp  with  hay  and  grain  or  meal  mixed  with  it.  This  was 
gradually  increased  to  40  to  50  Ibs.  He  also  tried  80  to  90 
Ibs.  per  head,  but  considers  this  a  disadvantage  in  fattening 
cattle,  as  they  eat  less  grain  and  meal.  Pulp  helps  to  digest 
the  food  and  lessens  the  danger  of  overfeeding.  After  feeding 
from  ninety  to  one  hundred  days,  he  advises  going  back  grad- 
ually to  20  or  25  Ibs.  of  pulp  per  day,  increasing  the  grain  food, 
etc.,  and  finds  it  better  to  give  ground  feed  with  pulp  rather 
than  whole  grain.  The  pulp-fed  cattle  will  sell  as  readily  as 
any  other,  as  they  dress  and  ship  as  well,  even  for  export. 
Cattle  will  eat  poor  and  damaged  roughage,  which  they  other- 
wise would  not  touch,  if  it  is  mixed  with  pulp. 

Experience  at  The  leading  pioneer  of  residuum  pulp  feeding  in  Nebraska 
Ames,  Neb.  has  been  the  Standard  Cattle  Co.,  at  Ames,  and  extracts  and 
comments  giving  in  considerable  detail  their  experience  from 
the  beginning  are  quoted.  Several  years  since  the  following 
statement  was  made:  "  Beet  pulp  cannot  be  profitably  used,  as 
I  think,  except  when  fed  to  animals  that  are  sheltered  in  a 
warm  place."  No  experiments  had  been  made;  this  was 
simply  an  assertion.  Since  that  time  Mr.  Allen,  of  the  com- 
pany, has  given  the  question  a  great  deal  of  attention.  He 
says : 

"The  average  amount  of  ground  feed  that  wre  have  given 
cattle  in  out-door  lots,  in  mid-winter,  ranged  from  25  to  28  Ibs. 
per  day;  indoor  fed  cattle,  16  to  20  Ibs.  Last  winter  we 
shipped  pulp-fed  cattle  that  had  been  fed  only  ten  pounds 
of  grain;  some  that  had  been  fed  only  six  pounds  through  three- 
fourths  of  their  feed." 

As  regards  cattle  fed  on  grain,  it  is  assumed  that  the  number 
is  3,000,000,  and  the  cost  of  food  of  each  animal  is  estimated  at 
$19.  This  means  $57,000,000.  The  saving  for  cattle  feed  alone 


EXPERIENCE    AT    AMES,    NEB.  223 

would  be  $20,000,000  by  beet-pulp  feeding.  The  beet-tops  and 
leaves  are  estimated  to  be  worth  S2  per  acre  for  feeding  pur- 
poses. By  the  proper  utilization  of  these,  combined  with  the 
residuum  pulp  from  factories,  there  would  follow  a  valuable 
saving  over  the  average  cost  of  to-day. 

Prof.  Nicholson  at  the  time  stated,  that  the  Standard  Cattle 
Co.  at  Ames,  Nebraska,  fed  pulp  in  three  rations:  First,  ten 
pounds  of  oil  cake  and  corn  meal  to  from  seventy  to  ninety 
pounds  of  pulp;  second,  six  pounds  of  oil  cake  and  meal  to  one 
hundred  pounds  of  pulp;  third,  twenty-three  pounds  of  ensilage 
to  seventy  pounds  of  pulp. 

Mr.  Allen  some  time  since  addressed  to  a  government  official 
the  following  remarks  on  silos  which  would  hardly  be  acceptable 
in  Europe:  "The  surplus  that  accumulates  beyond  requirements 
is  thrown  from  the  cars  near  the  factory  into  a  large  pile  awaiting 
use  after  the  campaign  is  over  and  the  fresh  supply  from  the 
factory  is  cut  off.  From  our  experience  I  judge  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  take  pains  to  preserve  the  pulp.  At  some  sugar  factories 
more  or  less  expensive  silos  have  been  made,  one,  for  instance, 
at  Ogden,  Utah,  and  similar  ones  at  Lehi.  I  have  no  doubt 
there  is  a  saving  of  pulp  by  the  use  of  these  silos,  but  I  should 
judge  the  interest  on  the  cost  of  these  silos  and  the  additional 
labor  required  in  getting  the  pulp  out  would  exceed  the  value 
of  the  pulp  lost." 

The  experiments  of  the  Standard  Cattle  Co.  continue  to  be  a 
pronounced  success.  The  resident  of  the  company  wrote  to  a 
trade  journal  two  years  since  as  follows:  "  The  past  winter  we 
fed  on  pulp  30,000  sheep  which  were  fed  regularly — the  figures 
herewith  are  averages  and  include  all  classes  of  sheep.  The 
heaviest  wethers  sold  averaged  135  Ibs.  and  heaviest  lambs  100 
Ibs.  at  market.  Some  of  the  sheep  sold  on  the  Omaha  market 
killed  out  52  per  cent,  of  dressed  mutton. 

"  We  have  not,  even  to  the  largest  sheep,  fed  to  exceed  eleven 
pounds  per  head  a  day  at  any  time  and  our  maximum  average 
feed  was  ten  pounds  a  day.  We  are  inclined  to  think  that  this 
is  too  large  a  feed  of  pulp  for  grown  sheep,  and  that  seven  or 
eight  pounds  is  rather  more  than  should  be  fed  to  lambs. 

'•  At  first  the  effect  of  heavy  pulp  feed  is  not  perceptible,  but 


224      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

after  a  while  it  is  extremely  diuretic  in  its  effects  and,  we 
thought,  produced  a  malady  from  which  a  number  of  sheep 
died. 

"  We  regard  seven  pounds  of  pulp  per  day  to  lambs  and  ten 
pounds  to  sheep  a  maximum  beyond  which  it  is  not  safe  to  go. 
The  total  pulp  fed  was  11,971  tons." 

In  a  recent  correspondence  with  Mr.  Allen  upon  the  subject, 
he  says:  "There  is  no  extended  information  respecting  feeding 
pulp  to  cattle,  as  this  is  the  first  winter  in  which  we  are  using 
it  in  any  volume,  and  the  feeding  season  is  not  yet  half  through; 
therefore,  the  only  figures  I  can  show  you  are  those  of  sheep 
feeding.  It  will  take  years  before  there  is  any  valued  recorded 
experience  in  pulp  feeding.  I  send  you  figures  regarding  our 
cattle  feeding  in  order  that  you  may  see  what  a  variety  of  pro- 
ducts are  fed  to  cattle  and  where  the  pulp  will  come  in.  No 
doubt  we  are  this  winter  making  a  valuable  saving  of  food  pro- 
ducts by  the  use  of  pulp,  but  we  cannot  demonstrate  it  in  figures. 
I  send  you  also  some  of  our  tables  which  may  aid  you  a  little. 

"We  are  this  year  feeding  4,000  cattle  and  31,500  sheep, 
which  are  being  fed  on  pulp  with  other  products.  And  we 
have  also  been  able  to  make  very  good  use  of  the  beet  tops  left 
in  the  fields,  having  grazed  our  cattle  altogether  through  a  period 
of  more  than  60  days  on  as  many  as  1500  acres  of  beet  fields 
after  harvesting,  getting  therefrom  possibly  as  much  as  $10,- 
000.00  in  food. 

"In  this  part  of  the  country  where  corn  has  been  the  only 
food  product  understood  and  appreciated  by  farmers,  pulp  has 
been  little  appreciated,  and  probably  some  experiments  of  feed- 
ing in  midwinter  have  not  been  successful.  It  is  gaining  ground, 
however,  in  public  opinion.  WThere  it  can  be  fed  without  freez- 
ing, its  value  is  no  doubt  great  enough  to  be  well  worth  consid- 
ering in  a  sugar  proposition.  I  have  been  very  careful  about 
what  I  have  said  about  pulp,  but  we  feel  now  that  it  has  greater 
value  than  wre  have  ever  yet  felt  free  to  claim  for  it.  I  append 
hereto  our  superintendent's  opinion  as  to  the  value  of  beet  pulp. 

"  In  feeding  300  steers  in  one  yard,  we  fed  from  one  and  one 
half  to  two  loads  of  cut  fodder  per  day  with  all  the  pulp  they 
would  clean  up.  The  fodder  weighs  about  3,000  Ibs.  to  the 


EXPERIENCE    AT    AMES,    XEB.  225 

load.  This  year  we  figure  30  per  cent,  corn  in  the  fodder 
which  would  make  from  6  to  8  Ibs.  of  corn  to  the  steer  per  day, 
besides  all  the  pulp  he  could  eat.  We  got  some  of  the  yards  up 
to  60  Ibs.,  but  they  eat  from  40-50  Ibs.  to  the  head  per  day. 
So  I  believe  the  cattle,  which  are  on  from  8—10  Ibs.  of  grain,  a 
fill  on  beet  tops  once  a  day,  and  all  the  pulp  they  can  eat,  will 
make  a  better  gain  than  on  a  full  feed  of  grain  alone.  By  the 
time  our  beet  tops  were  used  up  we  had  the  cattle,  as  you  are 
aware,  up  to  a  fair  grain  ration  of  about  10  Ibs.,  besides  what 
was  in  the  fodder.  As  soon  as  we  stopped  feeding  pulp  we  were 
compelled  to  feed  each  yard  of  300  cattle  from  30  to  50  cwt.  of 
cut  fodder  more  than  they  had  been  getting,  and  still  with  this 
increase  the  cattle  did  not  look  nearly  so  well.  I  am  of  the 
opinion  that  cattle,  say  on  a  15  Ib.  ration  of  grain  and  40  Ibs.  of 
pulp,  will  make  a  better  gain  than  cattle  on  a  25  Ib.  ration  of 
grain  without  any  pulp;  the  only  trouble  that  exists  is  that  cold 
weather  stops  feeding  outside.  If  one  could  have  cattle  ready 
to  feed  as  soon  as  the  pulp  could  be  obtained,  say  September 
15th  to  December  15th,  this  would  give  three  months  of  good 
weather,  and  with  the  proper  care,  if  one  wanted  to  crowd  either 
cattle  or  sheep,  they  would  be  in  pretty  good  shape  for  a  grain 
finish  by  that  time.  I  believe  one  gets  better  results,  or  at  least 
is  able  to  see  the  results  better,  on  older  cattle  than  on  younger. 
There  were  a  number  of  milch  cows  on  the  place  being  fed  on 
pulp  and  straw,  without  any  grain  whatever,  and  they  kept  up 
a  good  flow  of  milk  and  also  gained  in  flesh. 

"I  believe  pulp  fed  with  corn  fodder,  straw  or  other  dry 
foods  creates  better  digestion,  and  animals  are  consequently 
able  to  get  more  good  out  of  each  product.  Making  a  rough 
estimate  I  should  say  that  where  a  person  has  stock,  beet  tops 
are  worth  from  85.00  to  88.00  per  acre.  With  grain  the  price 
it  is  this  year,  I  would  value  pulp  at  84.00  per  ton." 

The  Ames  factory  can  slice  about  500  tons  of  beets  per  diem; 
there  remains  consequently  over  200  tons  residuum  pulp.  The 
fact  is  the  factory  was  the  outcome  of  cattle  feeding,  and  one  of 
the  main  objects  in  view  was  the  securing  of  the  requisite  pulp 
for  the  stock  yards,  while  the  reverse  was  the  case  of  the 
Oxnard  Co. 
15 


226  FEEDING   WITH   SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

In  Michigan,  when  there  were  only  ten  factories,  they  offered 
their  combined  pulp  production  to  the  stock  yards  of  Chicago, 
simply  asking  that  it  be  hauled  away.  It  seems  almost  laugh- 
able that  they  did  not  avail  themselves  of  it  at  once,  but  pre- 
ferred to  make  investigations  and  thus  the  opportunity  was  lost. 
Nearly  50,000  head  of  cattle  could  have  been  fattened  under 
most  favorable  conditions. 

Michigan  experi-  The  Michigan  State  College  Experiment  Station  has  given  the 
ment  station,  question  of  sugar  beet  cossettes  serious  attention,  and  an  out- 
line of  the  conclusions  relating  to  the  same  is  of  great  interest. 
Since  the  establishment  of  the  several  beet  sugar  factories  in  the 
State,  a  new  stock  feed  has  been  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
farmers.  There  is  an  urgent  claim  that  the  farmers  have  the 
product  delivered  to  them  containing  20  per  cent,  dry  matter; 
this  by  usual  means  of  pressing  is  hardly  to  be  expected.  In 
Michigan  alone,  even  with  the  thirteen  existing  beet  sugar 
factories,  the  annual  output  of  the  residuum  cossettes  is  not  less 
than  300,000  tons.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  most  of  this 
valuable  product  is  lost,  being  simply  taken  from  the  factories 
by  a  conveyor,  dumped  and  left  to  decay.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, the  hygienic  condition  of  the  environment  is  in  danger, 
and  the  residents  in  many  cases  make  justified  complaints. 
The  Michigan  station  undertook  the  experiment,  in  a  practical 
way,  of  testing  the  "value  of  beet  pulp  as  a  succulent  food 
when  combined  with  dry  feeds."  The  first  experiments  were 
conducted  on  the  Grafton  farm  near  Alma.  The  main  object  in 
view  was  to  feed  several  hundred  steers  with  as  little  outlay  as 
possible,  while  in  experiments  made  at  Pearl,  in  western  Michi- 
gan, the  steers  were  to  be  fattened  as  rapidly  as  possible.  On 
the  farm  at  Alma,  the  "herd  was  divided  into  two  lots,  one 
containing  thirty  steers  to  receive  pulp,  and  the  other  twenty 
steers  to  be  fed  the  same  basal  ration  but  no  pulp.  Prior  to 
the  beginning  of  the  experiment,  all  of  the  steers  had  received 
pulp.  It  was  necessary,  therefore,  gradually  to  remove  the 
pulp  from  the  twenty  steers  that  were  to  receive  none  during 
the  experiment.  A  comparison  of  the  amount  of  feed  required 
to  produce  a  hundred  pounds  of  gain  indicates  that  3,885  Ibs. 
of  pulp  was  equal  in  feeding  value  to  881.3  Ibs.  of  stover,  1,086 


MICHIGAN    EXPERIMENT    STATION.  227 

Ibs.  of  hay  and  186.6  Ibs.  of  grain.  .  .  .  The  gain  with  the 
pulp-fed  steers  up  was  2,815  Ibs.  or  93.8  Ibs.  per  steer,  while 
without  pulp  the  twenty  steers  gained  1,120  Ibs.  or  56  Ibs.  per 
steer.  .  .  .  To  carry  a  steer  through  thirteen  weeks  of  winter, 
simply  keeping  the  animal  thrifty  and  growing,  without  an 
attempt  to  make  the  gains  made  in  the  interval  pay  for  the 
feeds,  required  per  steer  5.024  Ibs.  of  pulp  with  775.7  Ibs.  of 
mixed  hay,  356  Ibs.  of  shredded  stover  and  224  Ibs.  of  grain. 
Without  the  pulp,  it  required  per  animal  275  Ibs.  more  hay 
and  364  Ibs.  more  stover.  Taking  these  figures  as  a  basis,  and 
remembering  that  each  pulp-fed  steer  gained  67  Ibs.  more  in 
weight  in  the  thirteen  weeks,  it  is  possible  to  estimate  the  value 
of  the  pulp  as  a  factor  in  a  ration  designed  to  carry  steers 
through  the  winter  cheaply,  if  that  form  of  cattle  feeding  is  ever 
desired.  The  director  of  the  Michigan  station,  discussing  these 
results,  says  :  "It  required  per  day  and  steer  with  the  pulp-fed 
lot  55  Ibs.  of  pulp,  8.5  Ibs.  mixed  hay,  4  Ibs.  of  shredded  corn 
stover  and  2.4  Ibs.  ground  grain.  On  this  ration  the  steers 
made  an  average  daily  gain  of  1.42  Ibs.  The  lot  receiving  no 
pulp  had  for  a  daily  ration  11.5  Ibs.  of  mixed  hay,  8  Ibs.  of 
shredded  corn  stover  and  2.4  Ibs.  of  grain,  and  made  a  daily 
gain  of  0.684  Ibs.  Comparing  the  amounts  of  food  consumed 
by  each  pen,  to  produce  a  hundred  pounds  of  gain,  and  com- 
puting from  this  data  the  value  of  a  ton  of  pulp  as  an  additional 
succulent  fodder,  the  tests  show  that  under  the  conditions  exist- 
ing, a  ton  of  pulp,  fed  with  the  other  factors  of  the  ration  took 
the  place  of  421.5  pounds  of  corn  stover,  274  pounds  of  mixed 
hay  and  68.8  Ibs.  of  grain. 

The  experiments  at  the  Pearl  farm  are  of  equal  interest.  In 
this  case  a  herd  of  twenty  steers  were  divided  into  two  lots,  to 
one  of  which  was  given  a  ration  of  mint  hay,  wheat  bran,  and 
corn  meal,  while  to  the  other  lot  was  given  the  same  ration  and 
beet  pulp  in  addition.  The  pulp-fed  steers  made  an  average 
daily  gain  of  2.52  Ibs.,  while  the  steers  which  had  no  pulp 
made  a  daily  gain  of  1.84  Ibs.  Consequently  a  ton  of  pulp 
took  the  place  of  244  Ibs.  of  mint  hay,  32.6  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran, 
296  Ibs.  of  corn  meal  and  27.2  Ibs.  of  oats.  It  is  interesting  to 
recall  the  experiments  in  feeding  dairy  cows  in  the  winter  of 


228      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

1898-99.  The  pulp  used  was  hauled  on  cars  from  Bay  City  to 
Lansing,  and  it  neither  froze  nor  fermented,  but  kept  fresh 
until  eaten.  It  one  case  cows  for  some  unknown  reason  refused 
to  eat  the  residuum. 

Without  going  into  the  details  of  this  experiment,  it  is  impor- 
tant to  note  that  with  pulp  there  resulted  128.4  Ibs.  of  butter  fat, 
while  without  pulp  the  yield  was  130  Ibs.,  which  was  not  in 
favor  of  the  pulp-fed  cows,  and  apparently  no  advantage  was 
gained.  As  regards  milk  production,  there  was  a  decided 
advantage  in  favor  of  pulp,  for  in  this  case  there  were  7,258  Ibs. 
milk,  and  without  pulp  6,844  Ibs.,  a  difference  of  415  Ibs., 
which  is  considerable.  The  practical  feeders  of  Michigan  ex- 
press their  opinion  favorably  as  regards  the  expected  advantages 
to  be  derived  from  residuum  cossette  feeding.  With  fresh  beets 
the  results  were  favorable,  but,  as  might  have  been  expected, 
with  the  frozen  product  complications  arose.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  what  one  farmer  from  Kalamazoo  says:  "  I  commenced 
feeding  on  one  half  a  bushel  of  pulp  a  day  and  increased 
gradually  until  my  cows  were  eating  one  bushel  a  day,  but  at 
that  point  they  seemed  to  get  tired  of  it,  and  the  effect  on  their 
bowels  was  bad."  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  pulp  or 
the  other  constituents  of  the  ration  were  responsible! 

Cossette  drying.  In  Michigan  the  question  of  cossette  feeding  has  now  been 
considerably  extended,  and  a  special  appliance  has  been  intro- 
duced for  drying  the  residuum.  Louisiana  Planter  and  Sugar 
Manufacturer  gives  a  description  of  it,  as  follows:  "The  pulp 
after  leaving  the  factory  contains  90  per  cent,  moisture. 
From  the  conveyor  it  goes  to  a  set  of  apple-graters,  where 
it  is  cut  into  small  pieces  dropping  into  large  vats,  where 
sufficient  water  is  added  to  enable  the  pumps  to  handle 
it.  Then  it  is  forced  through  filter  presses.  There  will  be 
two  presses  of  40  cells  each.  The  plates  will  be  of  wood, 
octagon  in  shape,  covered  with  perforated  brass  plates  No.  00 
gauge.  Between  the  plates  are  steel  rings  35  inches  in  diameter 
by  4  inches  wide.  The  pulp  enters  the  press  in  three  differen' 
places,  and  is  evenly  distributed  to  each  cell  by  a  spiral  screw 
going  through  the  center;  the  pressure  carried  is  from  60  to  IOC' 
Ibs.  per  square  inch.  Leaving  the  pressure  with  60  per  cent. 


NEW    YORK.  229 

moisture,  it  drops  into  a  screw-conveyor,  the  low-product  mo- 
lasses with  it,  and  contains  about  25  per  cent,  of  water  just 
before  entering  the  dryer.  The  dryer  is  a  large  drum,  made 
similar  to  a  sugar  granulator,  being  6  feet  in  diameter  and  40 
feet  long.  There  will  be  two  of  them  making  6  revolutions 
per  minute.  Inside  the  drum  enters  a  hot-air  conduit  (cone- 
shaped)  perforated  with  600  4-inch  holes.  There  is  an  inner 
shell,  one-half  inch  from  the  outer,  running  the  full  length  of 
the  drum,  having  shelves  similar  to  a  sugar  granulator.  This 
inner  one  is  to  protect  the  outer  from  coming  in  contact  with 
the  vapors,  and  also  to  retain  the  heat.  The  heat  is  generated 
by  a  coal  or  coke  furnace,  and  is  drawn  through  the  drum  by  a 
suction  fan  at  the  discharge  end,  the  heat  being  very  intense  on 
entering,  but  leaving  the  drum  at  only  130°.  After  traveling 
40  feet  in  35  minutes  the  pulp  leaves  the  dryer,  containing  from 
7  to  1 1  per  cent,  moisture.  After  passing  through  a  set  of  roll- 
ers, being  ground  as  fine  as  bran,  it  is  then  sacked  for  foreign 
shipment  and  baled  so  that  a  ton  will  go  in  72  cubic  feet.  A 
40  H.  P.  engine  will  supply  all  the  power  needed,  and  the  build- 
ing has  two  floors  50  feet  wide  by  75  feet  long.  .  .  .  The  cost 
is  ...  $16,000,  and  the  expense  is  about  one  dollar  per  ton 
of  dry  pulp." 

The  official  reports  appertaining  to  the  success  of  this  plant 
were  not  favorable,  while  at  Alma,  where  the  second  plant  has 
been  introduced,  they  are  much  more  encouraging. 

New  York  may  be  considered  one  of  the  important  dairying  New  York. 
States  of  ,the  East,  as  it  there  has  an  influence  directly  and  in- 
directly upon  the  entire  rural  question.  During  a  long  period 
of  years  farmers  have  been  feeding  brewers'  wastes,  and  realize 
that  the  milk  and  butter  from  cows  thus  fed  have  been  bene- 
fited. No  other  product  within  the  past  few  years  met  the 
requirements  of  cheap  dairying  production  better  than  this. 
Hence  there  has  been  comparatively  little  trouble  in  inducing 
the  farmer  to  handle  the  product  from  the  existing  beet-sugar 
factories.  This  has  been  a  considerable  financial  assistance  to 
the  Binghamton  factory,  who  were  able  to  dispose  of  their  resi- 
duum at  an  average  price  of  about  75  cents  per  ton. 

At  one  time  New  York  farmers  were  somewhat  alarmed  at 


230 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


the  prospect  of  an  invasion  of  live  stock  to  be  sent  from 
Montana,  which  was  to  utilize  the  residuum  of  the  beet-sugar 
factories, 

Utah.  At  Utah  several  thousand  head  of  cattle  are  fattened  almost 

at  the  door  of  the  factory.  The}7  consume  over  100  Ibs.  of  the 
residuum  per  diem,  to  which  are  added  about  15  Ibs.  hay. 

From  the  early  building  of  the  Lehi  factory  provisions  were 
made  for  the  pulp  utilization,  with  the  view  of  extending  the 
dairying  interest  of  the  State.  Several  thousand  head  of  cattle 
are  fed. 

New  Mexico.  In  New  Mexico  5000  sheep  were  fed  in  pens  not  far  from  the 
Carlsbad  factory.  No  complaints  were  offered  to  this  system  of 
feeding,  and  the  results  taken  on  the  whole  were  most  satisfac- 
tory. Besides  this  attempt  at  feeding,  the  dairying  farmers 
of  the  locality  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity. 

At  Eddy  there  have  been  fattened  over  1000  head  of  sheep, 
etc.,  and  the  experiment  met  with  success.  The  fattening 
reached  nearly  ^  Ib.  per  diem.  The  residuum  pulp  was  com- 
bined with  alfalfa. 

Oregon.  The  Oregon  Sugar  Co.,  during  the  last  campaign,  was  able  to 

dispose  of  several  thousand  tons  of  the  residuum,  which  was 
considered  encouraging,  and,  after  it  has  been  fed  to  sheep, 
other  sales  may  follow;  10,000  tons  of  pulp  remained,  and 
nearly  all  of  it  appears  to  have  found  a  ready  market  at  a  price 
which  varied,  according  to  quantity,  from  thirty  to  sixty  cents 
per  ton. 

Minnesota.  At  Minnesota  the  Saint  Louis  Park  factory  has  been  fortunate 
in  being  able  to  dispose  of  its  pulp  as  fast  as  produced.  The 
selling  price  of  the  residuum  is  only  about  20  cents  per  tori. 
Colorado.  From  Colorado  we  learn  that  the  Lockhart  Live  Stock  Co. 
has  this  year  been  feeding  4,000  head  of  cattle  with  30,000  tons 
of  beet  pulp.  During  the  campaign  previous  the  farmers  took 
very  little  interest  in  this  question  of  pulp  utilization.  At  pres- 
ent they  are  entitled  to  20  per  cent,  of  all  the  residuum  and  are 
availing  themselves  of  the  opportunity. 

Iowa.  The  importance  of  feeding  pulp  and   beets  to  cattle  was  well 

expressed  in  a  speech  made  in  Iowa  by  our  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture: "The  managers  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Iowa, 


IOWA.  231 

where  the  finest  animals  of  the  United  States  are  found,  and 
where  the  best  beef,  mutton  and  pork  ever  taken  to  Chicago  are 
finished,  find  it  necessary  to  have  roots;  and  I  have  no  hesita- 
tion in  saying  that  the  Iowa  farmer  can  afford  to  grow  roots  for 
his  animals,  no  matter  how  cheaply  he  can  get  other  feeds.  The 
Iowa  farmer  can  afford  to  grow  sugar  beets  for  the  pulp  alone. 
We  must  keep  an  eye  on  the  South  American  republics.  The 
Argentine  Confederation  has  learned  to  grow  alfalfa,  and  is 
sending  very  fat  grass-fed  animals  to  the  European  markets," 


PART  FOURTH. 

CHAPTER  I. 
Molasses  for  Feeding1. 

Early  experi-  THE  ^rs^  one  *°  suggest  molasses  as  a  fodder  was  Hermstadt, 
ments  in  molas-  in  1811.  A  special  forage  was,  as  early  as  1830,  made  up  of 
ses  feeding,  chopped  straw  and  100  kilos  of  molasses,  as  a  total  daily  ration 
for  80  head  of  cattle,  2000  sheep  and  20  horses.  Petibval,  who 
is  a  thorough  believer  in  the  importance  of  this  utilization, 
especially  for  horses,  at  that  time  declared  that  with  molasses 
half  a  ration  of  oats  was  sufficient,  and  numerous  other  ex- 
amples could  be  given  of  the  same  kind. 

In  Germany,  the  first  efforts  to  be  recorded  in  this  direction 
were  by  Stockhardt,  in  1850,  and  later  by  Henneberg  and  Stoh- 
man,  who  fed  to  cattle  a  mixture  of  molasses,  oat-straw  and  hay. 
They  limited  the  amount  of  molasses  to  be  absorbed  to  8  kilos 
per  1UOO  kilos  live  weight  of  the  animal  fed. 

In  1860,  Fromenn  and  Rhode  did  not  obtain  very  satisfactory 
results  with  milch  cows  fed  with  flour,  straw  and  molasses. 
Gohren,  on  the  other  hand,  had  most  excellent  returns  later  on. 

At  this  same  period  (1860),  the  use  of  molasses  became  very 
general  in  France  and  Russia.  In  the  last-mentioned  country 
it  was  noticed  that  molasses,  when  combined  with  straw  or 
chopped  hay,  overcame  certain  existing  diseases.  Excellent 
results  were  also  obtained  on  these  lines  in  Bohemia. 

In  England,  the  use  of  molasses  for  cattle  was  not  general  be- 
fore 1870.  With  the  exception  of  the  investigations  of  Rimpau 
and  Christian!  nothing  remarkable  was  noticed  in  favor  of 
molasses  feeding.  On  the  contrary,  the  peasants  looked  upon 
this  product  with  apprehension,  as  they  feared  diarrhoea. 
Furthermore,  the  cost  of  molasses  increased  owing  to  the  fact 
that  it  had  a  certain  use  in  for  the  separation  methods  in  sugar 

(232) 


MOLASSES    FEEDING    IN    AUSTRO-HUNGARY.  233 

factories  after  most  of  the  sugar  was  extracted  and  it  was,  in  a 
measure,  rendered  worthless  for  feeding  purposes. 

In  1885  the  sugar  crisis  demanded  that  certain  measures  be 
taken  to  find  some  means  of  increasing  the  sugar  consumption 
in  continental  Europe,  and  therefore  molasses  was  proposed  as 
a  forage. 

The  cost  of  this  residuum  upon  the  market  decreased,  thus 
rendering  its  utilization  feasible,  and  as  a  result  numerous  in- 
vestigations were  made  and  taken  up  by  the  community  in  gen- 
eral. As  matters  now  stand,  the  combinations  may  be  consid- 
ered a  staple  commodity  on  the  usual  markets,  so  much  so  that 
in  Germany,  in  1895,  of  220  beet-sugar  factories  replying  to  General  use  of 
questions  put  to  them  by  a  well-known  authority,  130  declared  molasses  *or 

fppHjnn    jn 

that  they  sold  their  molasses  for  feeding  purposes  in  the  propor-  ^ 

tion  of  10  to  100  per  cent,  of  their  production.    Twelve  of  these 
establishments  got  rid  of  all  their  molasses. 

The  amount  of  molasses  used  for  feeding  purposes  in  Ger- 
many represented  27.6  per  cent,  of  the  total  production  during 
the  campaign  of  1901,  and  this  fact  alone  shows  to  what  extent 
the  subject  has  been  taken  up  in  that  country,  it  being  not  only 
the  agricultural  community  that  has  become  interested,  but  also 
the  army  at  large. 

The  advantages  for  horses  are  self-evident.     Stift  says  it  is  Increasing  pop- 
much  to  be  regretted  that,  in  Austria,  there  still  exists  a  certain     ularity  of 
prejudice  against  molasses  combinations,  mainly  due  to  the  bad  jn  jn  ^[JQ 
management  of  the  middle-man.     The  army  of  the  country  is      Hungary, 
the  sufferer. 

In  Austro-Hungary,  during  1900  and  1901,  6  per  cent,  of  the 
total  molasses  production  was  used  as  a  forage.  In  this  same 
country  127  of  the  sugar  factories  got  rid  of  their  molasses  in 
this  way.  It  was  fed  directly  to  cattle,  or  in  a  diluted  form, 
mixed  with  chopped  straw,  cereal  waste,  concentrates,  peat,  etc. 
Certain  factories  manufacture  this  feeding  stuff,  made  up  of 
molasses  and  peat,  dried  cossettes,  brewers'  grains,  palm-oil 
cake,  etc. 

In  Bohemia,  two  establishments  prepare  this  fodder  and  col- 
lect the  raw  material  at  the  factory  proper.  As  an  industry  it 
would  have  attained  an  even  greater  extension  in  that  country 


234  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

had  not  the  beet-sugar  factories  found  it  advantageous  to  use 
this  residuum  for  various  purposes  themselves. 

Possibilities  of       It   is  estimated    that  the  yearly  production  of   molasses  in 

molasses  feeding  France  is  320,000  tons;  if  one  divides  this  by  the  number  of 

in  France.     ^ays  jn  t^e  year  ^is  would  give  876,712  kilos  per  diem.      If  we 

admit  that  each  animal  receives  only  one  kilo,  there  would  be 

sufficient  to  feed  876,712  heads;  but  this  represents  only  a  very 

small  portion  of  the  total  number  of  animals  of  the  country 

which  without  considering  the  swine  is  9,466,000,  showing  that 

however  large  the  molasses  residuum  from  beet-sugar  factories 

may  be,  it  would  have  to  be  several  times  greater  in  order  to 

meet  the  demand,  if  molasses  feeding  were  generally  adopted. 

Never  before  did  molasses  render  a  greater  service  to  France 
than  during  the  recent  dry  spell.  Farming  produce  that  would 
have  been  considered  worthless  for  feeding  purposes,  has,  by  the 
addition  of  molasses,  been  made  most  palatable.  A  great  mis- 
take has  been  made  in  taxing  this  residuum  beyond  a  rational 
limit.  As  a  result  the  government  has  derived  certain  advan- 
tages, that  have  been  neutralized  by  the  limited  utilization  of 
the  product  among  the  large  and  small  dairying  centers.  A 
paradoxical  fact  relating  to  the  fiscal  molasses  question  is,  that 
the  manufacturer  has  every  advantage  in  selling  his  residuum 
to  distillers  or  for  exporting  purposes,  rather  than  to  the  tillers 
of  the  soil,  who,  from  an  agricultural  standpoint,  have  the  first 
claim.  This  fact  explains  why  there  should  be,  at  this  late  day, 
an  effort  to  look  after  farming  interests  from  a  molasses-utiliza- 
tion standpoint.  The  recent  proposed  changes  make  the  ques- 
tion still  more  complicated. 

Molasses  utiliza-      A   beet-sugar  factory,    to  work  on   a  profitable  basis,  must 

tion  one  of  the  utilize  its  residuums.     Pulps,  molasses  and  filter  scums  are  pro- 
essentials  for  ducts  having  a  money  value,  and  if  not  sold  for  their  money 

profitable  sugar  eqUivaient  should  at  least  find  some  market  or  utilization  and 

mat  inn 

not  be  allowed  to  go  to  waste,  which  is  the  case  with  the  beet 
sugar  factories  in  the  United  States.  The  total  daily  capacity 
of  existing  beet- sugar  factories  in  this  country  is  about  33,000 
tons,  and  the  resulting  residuum  molasses  is  about  1,000  tons  or 
2,000,000  Ibs.,  sufficient  to  feed  250,000  head  of  cattle  for  the 
entire  working  companies. 


- 


RIVALRY    AMONG    MANUFACTURERS.  235 

For  many  years  past  the  question,  from  a  cane  molasses  point  importance  of 
of  view,  has  been  discussed  before  the  Sugar  Planters'  Association,  molasses  utiliza- 
an  account  of  which  may  be  found  in  The  Louisiana  Planter.     tlon  in  th 
Many  used  three-quarters  of  a  barrel  per  day  for  eighty  head  of 
stock,  the  consumption  averaging  about  5  Ibs.  per  head  per 
diem.     It  is  found  that  the  quantity  of  hay  and  grain  food 
needed  is  considerably  diminished  by  this  utilization. 

In  Texas  the  cane  tops  are  sprinkled  with  molasses  and  then 
fed,  stock  appearing  to  prefer  it  to  grain.  Some  planters  fed 
molasses  to  their  mules  and  horses,  and  found  that  they  con- 
sumed on  an  average  12  J  Ibs.  per  diem. 

The  following  additional  facts  respecting  beet  molasses  are 
considered  very  important.  Molasses  from  sugar  cane  contains 
glucose;  beet  molasses  is  free  from  this  sugar,  but  retains  a 
larger  percentage  of  salts  and  other  impurities;  hence  the  prob- 
lem of  feeding  this  product  from  a  beet-sugar  factory  is  more 
complicated  than  when  handling  a  cane  residuum.  In  both 
cases,  however,  it  is  mainly  the  sugar  that  represents  its  nutri- 
tive value,  and  the  importance  of  it  for  the  development  of 
work,  etc.,  is  now  admitted  by  all  who  have  examined  the 
question. 

Between  the  various  modes  of  preparing  the  molasses  fodder,  Rivalry  among 
there  has  come  into  existence  considerable  rivalry,  the  various  manufactnrers 
inventors  condemning  their  competitors,  and  in  this  way  retard- 
ing the  progress  that  would  otherwise  have  been  made  in  the 
general  introduction  of  the  product  on  farms.  The  fact,  how- 
ever, remains  that  cattle  fed  upon  the  product  have  their  appe- 
tites stimulated  and  eat  more  straw  and  like  products  than  they 
would  otherwise.  As  soon  as  there  was  a  possibility  of  making 
the  molasses  fodder  very  general,  the  selling  price  of  the  resi- 
duum went  up,  which  necessarily  meant  a  set-back  as  far  as  its 
general  introduction  was  concerned. 

Since  1850  many  arguments  have  been  advanced  that  molasses 
contains  all  the  nutritive  elements  that  are  requisite  for  feeding 
cattle.  One  of  the  first  experiments  that  may  be  mentioned  was 
that  of  Krocker,  who  substituted  in  sheep  feeding  one-third  of 
a  pound  of  molasses  for  one  pound  of  hay  per  head  and  per 
diem.  The  excellent  results  that  were  obtained  have  been  fol- 


236 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


Composition  of 
molasses. 


Albumen  not 

contained  in 

molasses, 


Varied  opinions 

respecting  the 

value  of  amides. 


lowed  by  numerous  experiments,  which  have  been  more  and 
more  convincing.  In  the  meantime  several  failures  have  been 
recorded,  but  these  were  followed  by  successes. 

The  average  composition  of  molasses  is  about  as  follows: 

Molasses  upon  general  principles  may  be  considered  as  a  pro- 
duct containing  sugar  that  cannot  be  crystallized  by  any  known 
method.  Its  composition  is  only  then,  to  a  reasonable  extent, 
variable,  and  is  about  as  follows: 

Water  20  per  cent.  Dry  substances  containing:  Nitrogenous 
substances  10  per  cent.,  sugar  50  per  cent.,  non-nitrogenous  10 
per  cent.,  salts  10  per  cent.  Molasses  contains  from  1  to  1^  per 
cent,  nitrogen,  sometimes  more. 

According  to  Briem,  molasses  contains  8  per  cent,  of  digestible 
protein.  This  proportion  is  apparently  excessive,  as  molasses 
analyzed  by  Beyer  contained  1.47  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  of  which 
5.3  per  cent,  was  protein,  29.3  per  cent,  of  organic  substances, 
such  as  betaine,  glutamin  and  asparagin,  and  48.3  per  cent,  of 
amide  compounds.  The  remainder  was  not  determined. 

Ku'hn  is  responsible  for  the  assertion  that  of  100  parts  nitro- 
gen, 22.7  to  75.7,  or  an  average  of  34.4  per  cent.,  are  amides. 

One  of  the  interesting  features  of  this  residuum  is  that  the 
albuminoids  are  entirely  absent;  but  there  are  besides  the 
amides,  certain  acid  and  nitrate  combinations  of  these  sub- 
stances. As  a  general  thing,  however,  the  nitrogen  is  found  as 
an  organic  combination. 

From  these  discussions,  a  mistake  is  committed  in  asserting 
that  the  nitrogenous  substances  of  molasses  are  only  amides, 
which  are  said  to  have  no  nutritive  value  and  which  cannot 
consequently  take  the  place  of  elements  containing  protein. 
Recent  experiments  have  shown,  as  previously  explained,  that 
amides  have  nearly  the  same  digestibility  and  nutritive  power 
as  carbohydrates.  Previous  investigations  in  this  respect  have 
shown  that  the  theory  that  two-thirds  of  the  nitrogen  in 
molasses,  which  wre  considered  as  albumen,  is  erroneous. 

Authorities,  such  as  Ku'hn,  Ramm  and  Momsen,  assert  that 
these  nitric  substances  have  a  very  doubtful  nutritive  value, 
certainly  not  greater  than  that  of  carbohydrates,  as  their  use  for 
flesh  and  milk  production  is  infinitesimally  small.  They  have 


BENEFICIAL    EFFECTS    OF    MOLASSES    FEEDING.  237 

neither  the  chemical  composition  nor  the  action  upon  the  organ- 
ism that  is  possessed  by  albumen.  They  are  mainly  thrown 
out  in  the  urine. 

Weiske  and  Schulze  declare  that  they  are  without  nutritive 
value  and  are  simply  acid  amides;  hence  it  is  argued  that  no 
allowance  should  be  made  for  them  in  the  calculation  of  a  ration. 

Along  with  the  amides,  molasses  contains  from  40  per  cent.  Substances  other 
to  46  per  cent,  of  sugar,  besides  which  we  may  add  16  per  cent,  than  amides  and 
of  non-nitrogenous  substances,  meaning  those  which  are  not  their  in^uence> 
precipitated  by  lime  during  defecation. 

Molassic  salts  are  mainly  carbonate  of  potassium  and  sodium, 
and  also  chlorids.  They  contain  also  lime,  sulphuric  acid  and 
a  small  percentage  of  phosphate. 

A  certain  nutritive  value  must  be  placed  upon  the  non-sugar 
of  molasses,  as  it  has  the  property  of  exciting  digestion  and 
facilitating  certain  biological  phenomena,  such  as  the  produc- 
tion of  fatty  substances  and  increasing  the  percentage  of  dry 
matter  in  milk.  This  property,  attributed  to  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances and  the  salts  of  molasses,  cannot  be  obtained  by  the  use 
of  salt  alone.  It  is  mainly  this  inexplicable  property  that  con- 
stitutes the  real  value  of  molasses;  consequently,  one  cannot 
deny  that  the  nitrogenous  substances  of  molasses  have  a  certain 
nutritive  value  and  other  special  actions  which  in  no  way  depre- 
ciate the  market  value  of  the  residuum.  Even  if  we  may  make 
no  allowance  for  the  nitrogenous  substances  of  molasses,  its  nu- 
tritive value  is  always  greater  than  its  market  valuation. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  variations  that  have  been  found  in  Beneficial  effects 
the  composition  of  molasses,  up  to  the  present  time  no  instances    of  molasses 
have  been  recorded  of  any  toxic  effects  that  have  followed  from       feeding, 
molasses  feeding;  but  it  has  very  correctly  been  noticed  that  a 
certain  diarrhoea  is  apt  to  follow,  due  to  the  organic  salts  it  con- 
tains.    This  is  the  outcome  of  an  excessive  use  of  this  residuum 
for  feeding  purposes,  and  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  an  excess  of 
any  feed  would  have  the  same  effect.     Consequently  the  farmer 
has  every  advantage  in  keeping  the  molasses  percentage  of  a 
ration  within  the  limits  of  a  standard,  just  as  is  done  with  every 
other  substance  entering  into  its  composition. 

The  salts  contained  in  molasses,  far  from  being  objectionable, 
are  on  the  contrary  rather  an  advantage. 


238      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

Physiological  The  special  nourishing  value  of  molasses  must  be  attributed 
action  of  to  the  percentage  of  its  extractive  elements,  which,  when  com- 
pared with  its  caloric  power,  is  very  high,  and  demands  an 
almost  insignificant  physiological  work;  thus  sugar  has  an 
important  value,  as  compared  with  all  other  hydrocarbons — 
being  soluble  in  water,  it  does  not  necessarily  demand  the 
action  of  the  gastric  juices  or  the  expenditure  of  latent  forces  of 
the  organism  for  its  assimilation. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  sugar  added  to  forages  is  with- 
out doubt  an  excellent,  healthy  and  economical  substance, 
producing  at  the  same  time  flesh  and  fat.  It  furnishes,  fur- 
thermore, the  requisite  caloric  for  the  animal,  and  materially 
assists  in  the  production  of  mechanical  energy.  Sugar-molasses 
possesses  greater  activity  than  sugar  alone.  Many  investiga- 
tions show  that  animals  fed  with  molasses  and  the  same  quan- 
tity of  sugar  have  always  given  better  results  than  when  fed 
with  molasses  only. 

One  need  only  compare  the  enormous  benefit  that  man  de- 
rives from  eating  sugar  to  realize  the  possible  fattening  results 
to  be  expected  from  feeding  this  substance  to  cattle.  Throwing 
aside  the  nitrogenous  value  of  the  molasses  constituents  in 
estimating  the  commercial  money  value  of  the  residuum,  and 
considering  only  the  hydrocarbons  it  contains,  one  realizes  that 
it  in  reality  has  a  greater  money  value  than  has  hitherto  been 
admitted;  and  all  facts  taken  into  consideration,  when  com- 
pared with  barley,  rice,  various  brans  of  wheat,  etc.,  it  holds 
its  own. 

Of  all  the  carbohydrates  sugar  may  be  considered  the  most 
valuable.  Being  soluble  in  water,  it  does  not  demand  any 
special  digestive  action,  which  is  within  itself  a  saving  for  the 
vital  energy  of  the  organism.  Furthermore,  it  is  pointed  out 
that  sugar,  being  diffusible,  soon  passes,  by  osmosis,  through 
the  intestinal  tubes,  while  other  non-nitrogenous  extractive 
elements,  such  as  starch,  pentosanes,  etc.,  must  undergo  many 
modifications,  lasting  for  a  considerable  time,  before  assimila- 
tion is  possible. 

The  osmotic  action  of  a  sugar  solution  is  very  rapid,  so  much 
so  that  the  new  theories  claim  that  its  complete  oxygenation  is 


MILCH    COW    FEEDING    WITH    MOLASSES.  239 

impossible.  The  blood  not  being  able  to  supply  the  oxygen 
necessary  for  its  transformation,  there  results  a  stored-up  energy 
for  subsequent  tissue  and  fat  formation. 

The  other  carbohydrates,  under  the  influence  of  the  gastric 
juice  and  other  active  principles  secreted  by  the  stomach,  intes- 
tinal canal,  etc.,  are  transformed  into  sugar  only  after  an 
interval  of  time,  under  which  circumstances  it  frequently  hap- 
pens that  the  sugar  thus  formed  is  entirely  consumed  by  the 
combustion  of  the  body,  and  but  little  remains  for  tissue  forma- 
tion. Killner  advances  the  theory  that  there  are  always  certain 
carbohydrates  very  difficult  to  digest,  and  they,  with  starch, 
help  the  formation  of  methane  in  the  intestines.  No  such 
transformations  occur  with  sugar,  and  its  purpose  consequently 
is  almost  entirely  one  of  organic  production.  Several  agrono- 
mists point  out  that  this  fact  alone  gives  sugar  an  advantage 
over  all  other  carbohydrates  for  fat  formation,  and  hence  its 
value  for  cattle-feeding,  either  as  it  is  found  in  molasses  or  in 
other  forms  that  the  farmers  have  at  their  disposal. 

Experience  shows  that  it  is  desirable  to  commence  the  feed-  Manner  of 
ing  with  molasses  in  small  quantities,  gradually  increasing  the  fed'ufl- 
amounts;  we  may  admit  about  one-quarter  of  the  ultimate 
ration,  as  a  beginning.  Even  under  these  circumstances  certain 
physical  organic  difficulties  at  first  occur;  but  there  is  no  reason 
for  alarm,  as  they  subsequently  disappear.  Among  the  numer- 
ous precautionary  measures  to  be  taken  in  feeding  molasses, 
mention  may  be  made  of  avoiding  the  exceptional  molasses 
which  contains  excessive  saline  elements.  The  residuum  from 
sugar  refineries  or  factories  where  the  sugar  is  largely  ex- 
tracted demands  special  attention,  and  hence  in  certain  cases 
it  may  be  found  desirable  to  have  made  an  ash  estimation  of 
the  molasses  that  is  to  be  used  for  feeding  purposes.  While 
the  nitrogen  percentage  of  the  dry  matter  of  regular  molasses 
is  2.16,  this  percentage  falls  to  0.69  in  molasses  from  the 
strontia  process. 

In  certain  cases  there  has  followed  a  slight  decrease  in  weight     Milch  cow 
upon  feeding  molasses  to  milch  cows,  but  the  fact  that  the  flowT   feeding  with 
of  milk  has  been  increased  must  not  be  overlooked.     Without     molasses, 
doubt  the  product  has  an  important   action    upon   the  milk 


240  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

secreting  glands,  and  this  secreting  influence  results  in  an  in- 
creased flow  of  milk,  which  continues  for  several  days  after  the 
molasses  ration  has  ceased  to  be  fed.  There  then  follows  a 
gradual  decrease,  which  in  certain  cases  falls  below  the  normal. 
Hoppe  attributes  this  exciting  influence  to  the  amides,  such  as 
asparagin,  contained  in  the  molasses;  Ramm,  on  the  other 
hand,  at  one  time  declared  that  the  stimulation  must  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  salts  of  the  molasses,  but  he  has  of  late  changed  his 
opinion. 

The  relative  amount  of  fatty  substances  contained  in  the  milk 
of  molasses-fed  cows  decreases  during  the  period  that  this  special 
fodder  is  placed  at  their  disposal,  but  its  absolute  quantity  in- 
creases. Allowance  is  always  made  for  the  absence  of  fatty 
constituents  of  molasses,  by  giving  to  the  animals  larger 
amounts  of  fatty  substances,  such  as  oil  cake. 

The  milch  cows  in  Ramm's  investigations  at  first  refused  a 
ration  consisting  of  equal  parts  of  molasses  and  palm  oil  meal, 
but  the  same  animals  ate  this  forage  when,  later,  the  amount  of 
molasses  was  lessened.  When  one  compares  the  results  ob- 
tained by  molasses  and  other  constituents,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  resulting  milk  contains  a  heavier  percentage  of 
fatty  and  dry  substances  with  molasses  than  is  realized  with 
other  feeding  stuffs.  The  quantity  of  milk  is  also  considerably 
increased. 

Holbrung  and  Kaiser  fed  to  milch  cows  one  kilo  of  molasses 
in  one  experiment,  and  2  kilos  per  diem  in  another.  This  was 
either  diluted  in  water,  or  represented  a  substitute  for  2  kilos  of 
bran.  With  the  exception  of  one  special  case,  the  milk  secre- 
tion was  notably  increased. 

Molasses  is  apparently  favorable  to  the  production  of  milk, 
not  only  on  account  of  the  nutritive  elements  it  contains,  but 
also  owing  to  the  exciting  action,  due  probably  to  the  amide 
constituents,  thereby  causing  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  milk 
per  diem  under  certain  conditions.  With  2  to  4  per  cent, 
molasses  the  fatty  substances  remain  almost  stationary;  but  as 
soon  as  5  kilos  per  head  are  fed  per  diem  there  is  to  be  noticed 
a  decrease  in  the  fatty  substances,  which  frequently  attain  0.5 
per  cent.,  hence  the  importance  of  adhering  to  a  certain  standard 


MOLASSES    FOR    FEEDING    HORSES.  241 

within  reasonable  limits.     Without  doubt,  as  before  stated,  the 
milk  is  of  an  exceptional  quality. 

As  regards  the  evil  effects  that  have  resulted  to  milch  cows 
receiving  molasses  in  their  daily  rations  during  gestation,  this 
is  difficult  to  explain,  and  possibly  the  feeder  was  more  at  fault 
than  the  animal  fed.  Then  again,  the  nature  of  the  molasses 
may  have  been  responsible,  and  among  the  authorities  who 
argue  from  this  basis,  we  may  mention  Hoppe,  who  says  that 
the  composition  of  molasses  plays  a  most  important  role.  He 
justly  declares  that  molasses  having  become  even  slightly 
soured  should  never  be  used. 

Among  the  interesting  theories  as  regards  the  physiological 
influences  of  molasses,  may  be  mentioned  the  excessive  increase 
of  the  urine  secretion  of  milch  cows,  which  has  a  pernicious  in- 
fluence upon  the  heart  and  kidneys. 

The  protein  percentage  of  milk  does  not  appear  to  be  influ- 
enced. This  would  show  that  molasses  causes  slight  increase 
in  protein,  which  would,  in  a  measure,  explain  why  the  ani- 
mals fed  lose  in  weight.  The  relative  amount  of  dry  substances 
is  slightly  decreased,  but  to  this  very  little  importance  need  be 
attached,  as  is  shown  by  the  Fleischmann  formula  for  milk 
analysis.  The  absorption  of  molasses  increases  the  acidity  of 
milk — especially  the  evening  milk.  Such  milk  will  coagulate 
spontaneously  after  three  or  four  days,  while  milk  from  cows 
that  have  not  been  fed  with  molasses  will  coagulate  only  after 
seven  or  eight  days. 

Experiments  in  the  fermentation  of  milk  by  the  Walter  and 
Gerber  method  were  less  favorable  with  the  product  from 
molasses-fed  cows  than  with  normal  milk;  but  these  results  are 
far  from  forcing  the  conclusion  that  the  milk  in  question  is  un- 
healthy. The  quality  of  the  butter  is  not  influenced.  The 
data  relating  to  this  analysis  show  it  to  be  normal,  only  the 
butter  is  a  little  harder  and  its  melting-point  is  a  few  degrees 
Centigrade  higher  than  other  butters.  There  have  been  noticed 
no  perceptible  differences  in  the  taste  of  the  two  products. 

Experiments  in  feeding  residuum  molasses  to  horses  were  con-    Molasses  for 
ducted  by  L.  Grandean,  who  has  published  an  account  of  same,  feeding  horses. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  in  a  general  way  what  he  says  respect- 
16 


242      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

ing  the  role  residuum  molasses  could  play  in  feeding  not  only 
horses,  but  cattle  in  general.  Regular  weighings  at  regular 
hours  made  known  each  day  the  live  weight  of  the  horses, 
during  rest,  when  working  and  after  work.  The  horses  drank 
at  their  discretion  at  given  hours,  and  the  water  drunk  was 
accurately  measured.  The  weight  and  the  composition  of  the 
rations  fed  were  accurately  determined,  as  was  also  the 
quantity  of  food  not  eaten.  Under  these  circumstances,  what 
each  horse  had  absorbed  was  known  with  mathematical  preci- 
sion. The  droppings  were  collected  with  great  care  and  imme- 
diately analyzed.  If  out  of  100  grams  of  nitrogenous  substances 
fed,  30  grams  were  found  in  the  urine  and  excrements,  the 
co-efficient  of  nitric  elements  was  then  said  to  be  70,  this  same 
plan  being  adopted  for  all  other  substances  of  which  the  ration 
consisted.  It  was  found  that  sugar  had  the  highest  coefficient 
of  digestibility  under  whatever  form  it  was  found  or  fed  in 
the  fodder;  the  coefficient  in  this  case  was  100,  meaning  that 
all  the  sugar  had  been  digested  by  the  animal — none  was  to  be 
found  in  the  droppings.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  for  horses 
of  410  kilos  [902  Ibs.]  live  weight  the  nitric  elimination  per 
diem  through  the  hair,  perspiration,  etc.,  amounted  to  about 
2.5  grams  per  diem.  This  item  is  mentioned  simply  to  show 
with  what  care  these  experiments  were  conducted.  The  daily 
ambient  temperature  and  conditions  of  moisture,  rain,  etc., 
influencing  the  experiment  were  allowed  for,  and  morning  and 
night  the  temperature  of  each  horse  was  taken.  We  cannot  in 
this  writing  enter  into  other  details;  suffice  it  to  say  that  when 
the  horses  were  working,  they  received,  beside  their  regular 
daily  rations,  which  consisted  of  straw  and  oil  cake,  2.5  kilos  of 
Vaury's  molasses  preparation.  This  represented  a  little  more 
than  one  kilo  of  molasses  or  450  grams  of  sugar.  The  result  of 
the  experiments  was  as  follows: 


MOLASSES    FOR    FEEDING    HORSES.  243 

WORK  PERFORMED  BY  HORSES,  MOLASSES  BEING  FED  (GRANDEAT:). 


WORK  DONE. 

Empty  wagon. 

Wagon  containing  two 
persons  of  70  kilos 
each. 

10  38  kilometers 

9  614  kilometer 

248  397  k   m 

254  649  k    m 

Duration  of  the  work  

4.  23  hours. 
46  431  kilometers 

4.59  hours. 
47  91°  kilomptpr 

23  494  kilos 

27  kilos 

1  089  684  k  m 

1  26°>  000 

The  amount  of  water  drunk  was  about  three  liters  per  kilo  of 
dry  substance  of  the  ration,  amounting  to  a  fraction  less  than 
that  taken  with  rations  without  sugar.  Contrary  to  the 
general  supposition,  sugar  does  not  increase  the  thirst  of  horses. 
These  figures  speak  for  themselves  and  show  that  there  are 
great  advantages  to  be  gained  by  feeding  molasses  to  horses 
during  active  work. 

Jorss  has  fed  horses  with  forages  consisting  of  palm  oil  meal 
and  molasses.  The  animals  suffered  from  colics  and  presented 
an  unhealthy  appearance.  He  substituted  3  Ibs.  of  cereal 
waste  for  3  Ibs.  of  this  molasses  combination,  and  he  realized  a 
considerable  profit  when  the  accounts  of  the  year  were  balanced. 
The  horses  were  in  an  excellent  condition  under  this  regimen. 

Respecting  molasses  feeding,  successful  experiments  may  be 
cited  in  which  broken  down  horses  have  been  brought  to  their 
normal  condition  by  feeding  them  with  chopped  straw  thor- 
oughly moistened  with  a  solution  consisting  of  5  quarts  of 
molasses  and  25  gallons  of  water.  This  mixture  was  prepared 
24  hours  in  advance  of  feeding,  and  to  it  was  added  some  well- 
cooked  cereal.  In  certain  sections  of  Germany  molasses  is  fed 
to  the  horses  of  the  omnibus  company  on  a  very  extended  scale. 
The  fact  is,  this  molasses  feeding  to  horses  is  also  coming  very 
much  into  vogue  in  the  German  army,  and  it  is  only  a  question 
of  time  before  it  will  become  generally  adopted.  In  France, 


244  FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

also,  the  question  is  being  seriously  considered,  and  recent  ex- 
periments apparently  show  that  a  satisfactory  ration  should 
consist  of  15.4  Ibs.  oats,  11  Ibs.  clover  hay,  11  Ibs.  wheat  straw. 
During  the  first  few  days,  about  one  pound  molasses  was  diluted 
in  water  and  took  the  place  of  one  pound  oats.  This  was  con- 
stantly increased,  until  reaching  the  sixth  day,  when  2.2  Ibs. 
molasses  were  used  and  13.2  Ibs.  oats,  instead  of  15.4  Ibs.,  as 
per  regular  ration  without  molasses  addition.  The  results  ob- 
tained were  in  every  way  satisfactory — there  was  a  slight  in- 
crease in  the  horses'  weight,  without  in  any  way  diminishing 
their  power  for  work. 

The  molasses  fodders  are  decidedly  advantageous,  especially 
for  working  horses,  and  Kunze  claims  that  molasses,  when 
properly  used,  will  give  them  great  vigor  during  excessive  work- 
ing. It  will  quicken  their  appetite,  even  in  case  of  animals 
that  are  poor  feeders.  One  may  feed  1.5  to  2.5  kilos  per  diem, 
which  means  1.2  to  1.9  kilos  of  molasses.  The  hair  of  the 
animals  fed  retains  its  glossy  hue,  and  their  general  health  gives 
reason  to  believe  that  the  product  is  to  be  highly  recommended 
in  every  respect. 

Sheep  feeding  Albert  and  Ramm  have  obtained  excellent  results  with  sheep, 
ses*  and  the  health  of  the  animals  being  fed  has  remained  quite  sat- 
isfactory by  feeding  3.6  percent,  of  the  animal's  live  weight 
combined  with  barley.  Greater  amounts,  such  as  4.8  per  cent, 
to  5  per  cent.,  brought  about  some  digestive  complications. 
There  has  never  been  noticed  the  slightest  increase  in  wool  pro- 
duction. 

For  sheep  being  fattened  one  may  give  a  ration  in  which 
there  are  250  grams  molasses.  This  feed  should  never  be  used 
for  these  animals  during  the  period  of  gestation. 

Sheep  thrive  on  molasses,  but  there  is  one  objection  to 
molasses  feeding  in  the  case  of  sheep,  which  is  that  the  wool 
becomes  soiled;  this,  however,  can  be  thoroughly  remedied  by 
washing. 

Steer  feeding       It  is  interesting  to  observe  which    live    stock    is    the    most 
with  molasses,  benefited  by  this  molasses  feeding.     For  steers  being  fattened 
during  the  summer,  4  kilos  per  1,000  kilos  live  weight  are  suffi- 
cient, while  in  winter  6  kilos  are  necessary.     When  this  limit 


• 


STEER    FEEDING    WITH    MOLASSES.  245 

is  reached,  certain  softening  of  the  bony  structure  is  noticeable, 
which,  according  to  several  leading  authorities,  is  to  be  attrib- 
uted solely  to  molasses,  and  the  explanation  given  is  its  low 
percentage  in  phosphate  of  lime  and  also  the  formation  of  cer- 
tain acids  in  the  digestive  tubes,  due  to  the  sugar  it  contains. 
This  acidity  decreases  the  alkalinity  of  the  blood,  which  then 
dissolves  the  calcic  phosphate. 

This  difficulty  may  be  overcome  by  adding  50  grams  of  pre- 
cipitated phosphate,  as  suggested  by  Maercker.  Experience 
shows  that  since  this  product  has  been  used  there  has  not  been 
a  single  instance  of  bone  softening;  consequently,  when  4  kilos 
of  molasses  are  given  to  a  full-grown  ox,  it  is  desirable  to  add 
to  the  ration  at  least  100  grams  of  calcic  phosphate  per  1,000 
kilos  live  weight. 

Vibrans  has  obtained  excellent  results  with  working  oxen, 
and  claims  that  no  other  feeding  substances  can  take  the  place 
of  molasses.  His  manner  of  feeding  is  to  chop  hay  very  fine, 
combine  it  with  straw,  and  sprinkle  the  whole  with  molasses. 
Concentrates  are  thrown  over  this  and  subsequently  mixed. 

At  the  Hohenau  sugar  factory  (Germany)  they  have  been 
feeding  these  molasses  forages  to  oxen  for  more  than  twenty 
years.  During  the  first  month  1J  kilos  per  head  and  per  diem 
are  fed,  and  the  following  months  2  kilos  of  molasses  are  mixed 
with  cossettes  in  the  daily  ration.  It  is  recorded  that  the 
animals  had  a  better  appetite  and  were  rapidly  fattened.  From 
what  has  just  been  said,  we  may  conclude  that  steers  and  oxen 
are  very  much  benefited  by  this  molasses  feeding. 

A  question  that  is  open  to  much  discussion  is  that  of  influ- 
ence of  molasses  combinations  upon  the  ultimate  quality  of  the 
meat.  Experiments  were  made  at  Leipzig  (Germany)  upon 
steers  fattened  at  Lauchsta'dt  with  the  following  ration  for  the 
first  group:  5  kilos  hay,  8  kilos  straw,  8  kilos  dried  cossettes,  6 
kilos  peat  molasses,  6  kilos  bran,  and  3  kilos  cotton-seed  meal. 
The  second  group  received  5  kilos  hay,  8  kilos  straw,  8  kilos 
dried  cossettes,  12  kilos  bran-molasses  combination,  and  3  kilos 
cotton-seed  meal.  The  cattle  were  subsequently  slaughtered 
and  their  meat  was  pronounced  of  first-class  quality. 

On  a  French  farm  visited  by  the  writer,  the  ration  for  steers 


246  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

weighing  320  to  350  kilos  was  10  kilos  wheat  middlings,  3  kilos 
molasses,  3  kilos  crushed  barley  and  1  kilo  oil  cake.  After  fifty 
days'  feeding  the  steers  were  in  an  excellent  condition.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  possibility  of  substituting  oil  cake  for 
residuum  cossettes.  but  it  must  be  done  gradually. 

Pig  feeding  Very  little  data  has  been  published  respecting  experiments  in 
with  molasses,  pjg  fee(jjng}  DUt  those  that  are  known  may,  upon  general 
principles,  be  considered  favorable.  For  example,  Jorss 
records  that  after  seven  days  feeding  of  two  pigs  with  2  kilos  of 
molasses  per  diem  there  followed  an  increase  of  weight  corre- 
sponding to  835  grams  per  diem  on  an  average.  This  authority 
is  an  advocate  of  liquid  molasses,  and  recommends  it  in  this 
form  for  pigs.  It  must  be  diluted  with  two  to  three  times  its 
volume  of  hot  water,  to  which  is  added  some  cereal  waste,  the 
whole  being  left  in  a  heap  in  that  steeping  condition  for  24  hours. 

Experience  shows  that  it  is  not  desirable  to  feed  pigs  with 
molasses  until  they  weigh  at  least  50  kilos.  When  this  weight 
is  reached  one  may  feed  1  per  cent,  of  their  weight  of  this  pro- 
duct. Sows,  on  the  other  hand,  should  not  be  allowed  more 
than  0.5  per  cent.  Molasses  produces  an  excellent  meat  when 
fed  at  the  same  time  as  corn,  and  under  no  circumstances  should 
it  ever  be  lacking  in  a  pig-feeding  establishment.  However, 
certain  precautions  are  necessary  so  as  not  to  push  this  quantity 
to  an  excess,  as  in  reaching  a  limit  of  3  per  cent,  there  are  dan- 
gers of  intestinal  complications,  which  means  an  impossibility 
of  sausage-making. 

According  to  Miesol  and  Bersch,  the  non-sugar  of  molasses 
takes  a  great  part  in  the  phenomenon  of  assimilation,  as  experi- 
ments with  1  kilo  of  molasses  upon  pigs  showed  when  com- 
pared with  sugar  and  starch  fed  under  like  circumstances. 
Both  the  meat  and  the  fat  were  of  excellent  quality. 

Fay  and  Frederikson  have  fed  pigs  with  skimmed  milk  and 
beaten  milk,  and  likewise  milk  waste.  As  soon  as  the  animals 
reach  25  kilos  in  weight  the  forage  consisted  of  barley,  corn, 
pollen,  oil  meal,  one-third  flour,  and  two-thirds  molasses. 
The  amount  of  forage  molasses  fed  was  increased  so  as  to  con- 
stitute one-third,  one-half,  or  even  two-thirds  of  the  ration,  but 
experience  showed  that  the  increase  of  weight  was  not  propor- 
tional to  the  increase  of  the  amount  of  molasses  fed. 


PERNICIOUS    EFFECTS    OF    MOLASSES    FEEDING.  247 

Experiments  seem  to  show  that  molasses  will  not  take  the 
place  of  grain  in  feeding.  However,  the  quality  of  the  fat  and 
of  the  meat  of  the  pigs  increased  very  materially  under  molasses 
feeding. 

As  a  general  thing  the  animals  increased  in  weight  in  a  very 
marked  degree.  Experiments  furthermore  appeared  to  show 
that  molasses  contributed  to  the  excellency  and  superiority  of 
the  resulting  hams. 

For  a  long  time  past  it  has  been  pointed  out  that  molasses  Pernicious  effects 
feeding  was  generally  followed  by  miscarriage  in  the  case  of  of  molasses 
pregnant  cows,  and  the  mortality  among  calves  fed  with 
molasses  was  exceptionally  high.  Efforts  were  made  to  deter- 
mine the  reason,  and  Friske  declared  that  it  was.  the  outcome  of 
a  special  acidity  that  calves  brought  with  them  when  borri. 
Kopisch  maintained  that  the  milk  soured  in  the  stomach  of 
young  calves,  and  was  changed  into  cheese.  He  even  went  so 
far  as  to  feed  the  young  animals  with  milk  of  lime  to  dissolve 
this  cheese.  But  Lachau  showed  that  the  death  rate  was 
caused  by  the  infection  of  the  environment,  and  that  it  was 
sufficient  to  change  the  locality  in  order  to  decrease  this  death 
rate.  It  may,  however,  be  attributed  to  a  decrease  in  the  per- 
centage of  molasses  in  the  ration.  It  has  been  noticed  that  the 
most  difficult  problem  to  overcome  was  to  convince  the  breeder 
that  exaggerated  quantities  of  molasses  were  harmful — the 
farmer  always  feeds  this  residuum  in  excess  of  what  should  be 
given.  Even  5  kilos  per  head,  Ramm  declares,  is  an  exagger- 
ated allowance  for  milch  cows.  Certain  complications,  such  as 
fever  and  tremblings,  have  followed  when  this  amount  has  been 
exceeded,  and  even  when  reaching  this  limit  great  care  is  neces- 
sary, for  several  instances  are  on  record  where  certain  signs  of 
weakness  were  apparent;  the  bony  structure  underwent  some 
changes  which  were  attributed  to  molasses,  and  which  were 
explained  by  the  small  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid  and  lime 
the  residuum  contains,  and  the  formation  of  certain  acids  in  the 
digestive  canal. 

It  was  suggested  by  Maercker  that  50  grams  of  precipitated 
phosphates  per  head  and  per  diem  be  added  to  the  ration,  and 
since  the  advice  was  put  into  practice  there  has  never  been  a 


248      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAE,  ETC, 

complaint  about  any  weakness  resulting  from  the  molasses- 
cossette  feeding.  Some  agronomists  declare  that  it  is  advis- 
able, when  feeding  more  than  4  Ibs.  molasses  (per  1000  Ibs. 
live  weight)  per  diem,  to  add  100  grams  of  a  basic  phosphate 
to  the  ration  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight  of  full-grown  oxen. 

Molasses  has  an  exciting  influence  on  the  organism  of  animals 
in  general.  The  appetite  is  increased  for  the  consumption  of 
other  fodders,  and  in  this  way  it  renders  great  service  in  the 
case  of  animals  that  decline  to  eat,  as  often  in  cases  of  moment- 
ary sickness  they  will  eat  molasses  forage  when  they  will  refuse 
everything  else. 

As  regards  the  nutritive  value  of  molasses,  it  is  difficult  to 

Nutritive  value  obtain  exact  data.     It  has  been  compared  with  oil  cake  from 
and  variations  various  sources.     Further  on  its  effects  will  be  shown. 

Its  action  upon  animals  in  general  has  resulted  in  certain 
complications,  which,  as  a  rule,  have  been  the  outcome  of 
faulty  modes  of  its  usage.  .  This  action  has  generally  been 
attributed  to  the  alkaline  salts  producing  undoubted  purgative 
effects.  If  we  may  rely  upon  the  observations  of  Hoppe,  we 
should  consider  the  alkaline  saccharates  responsible,  and  above 
all  the  potassic  saccharates,  rather  than  the  potassic  salts, 
properly  speaking.  Diarrhoea  has  been  obviated  by  estimating 
exactly  the  quantity  of  molasses  fed,  and  giving  to  the  animals 
other  suitable  feeds  at  the  same  time. 

Evident  beneficial      Experience  further  shows  that  molasses-fed  animals  have  an 

effects,      excellent  appearance;  this  is  especially  so  in  the  case  of  horses. 

The  horses'  coats,  under  these  conditions,  have  a  brilliant  hue. 

Molasses   has,   furthermore,   a  special   action  upon    horses;    it 

cures  colics  permanently. 

Practical  com-       In  certain  districts  of  northern  France  recently  visited  by  the 

parative  experi-  writer,  molasses  has  been  given  some  practical  tests  in  horse 
ments  in      an(j  cattle  feeding.     The  horses  had  previously  been  fed  with 

molasses  feeding  26  4  lbg>  of  oats  per  ^iem;  thjs  was  wort}-,   4!   centg>      At  t^e 

present  time  each  horse  consumes  22  Ibs.  of  oats,  worth  34 
cents,  and  6.6  Ibs.  of  molasses,  worth  about  4.8  cents,  which 
means  a  saving  of  about  two  cents  per  diem  upon  each  animal 
fed;  besides  which  it  was  noticed  that  horses  under  the  molasses 
ration  were  in  a  far  better  condition,  had  better  appetites  and 


MOLASSES  FEEDING  IN  FRANCE.  249 

were  entirely  free  from  intestinal  complications.     The  molasses 
is  always  combined  with  two  or  three  times  its  volume  of  water. 

In  fattening  oxen  it  was  found  that  molasses  offered  an 
economy  of  1-J  cents  per  diem  as  compared  with  other  rations. 
The  13  oxen  fed  with  pulp  and  molasses  gave  a  total  weight  of 
14,630  Ihs. ;  13  other  oxen  fed  upon  residuum  pulps  and  oil 
cake,  weighed  22  Ibs.  more;  this  was  after  first  weighing.  But 
when  weighed  twenty-two  days  later,  it  was  found  that  the 
molasses-fed  had  gained  143  Ibs.  over  the  others,  the  weight  of 
residuum  pulp  fed  in  both  cases  having  been  the  same.  The 
method  of  feeding  the  molasses  offers  special  interest.  The 
residuum  molasses  was  simply  poured  on  the  cossettes  prior  to 
each  feeding,  three  times  a  day.  When  chopped  straw  was 
mixed  with  this  ration,  the  cattle  did  not  eat  it  with  the  same 
avidity  as  they  did  the  molasses  and  cossettes.  It  is  important 
also  to  note  that  in  direct  contradiction  to  what  is  generally  sup- 
posed, the  excrement  of  oxen  fed  upon  molasses  is  not  more 
liquid  than  when  fed  upon  other  fodders.  Butchers  of  the 
locality  had  no  hesitation  in  declaring  that  the  resulting  meat 
was  equal  in  every  way  to  that  obtained  with  the  standard 
rations. 

The  above  figures  are  only  approximate,  and  it  is  important 
to  pass  in  review  some  experiments  made  at  Berthonval 
(France).  In  every  case  there  were  two  lots  of  animals,  one 
lot  receiving  the  molasses  ration  and  the  other  the  regular 
ration,  such  as  adopted  on  most  of  the  leading  farms.  The 
molasses  was  used  in  two  ways,  either  as  an  addition  to  a  ration 
or  as  a  substitute  of  some  element.  When  fed  to  sheep  under 
the  first  condition,  the  daily  ration  consisted  of  10  Ibs.  of  beet 
cossettes,  combined  with  chopped  straw,  1.5  Ibs.  cotton  oil  cake, 
0.7  Ibs.  molasses.  The  mixture  was  made  24  hours  before 
feeding,  so  that  there  followed  a  slight  fermentation,  which 
added  to  its  digestibility  and  resulted  in  its  being  eaten  with 
greater  avidity.  After  40  days'  feeding,  the  average  daily  in- 
crease in  weight  was  7.3  ounces  for  sheep  fed  with  molasses 
added  to  the  ration,  and  5.0  ounces  increase  with  regular  ration. 
In  the  second  experiment  the  oil  cake  was  replaced  by  one 
pound  of  molasses.  Under  these  circumstances  the  ration  had 


250      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

the  same  money  value  at  the  locality  where  the  experiment  was 
made.  The  increase  per  diem  for  molasses-fed  sheep,  without 
oil  cake,  was  6  ounces,  and  5.5  ounces  with  oil  cake.  Experi- 
ments in  feeding  heifers  were  also  interesting.  The  ration  con- 
sisted of  5.5  Ibs.  clover,  5.5  Ibs.  oat  straw,  35  Ibs.  beets  cut 
into  slices,  1.8  Ibs.  oil  cake.  The  first  lot  of  heifers  received 
1.5  Ibs,  of  diluted  molasses  combined  with  the  cossettes  24 
hours  before  feeding.  In  this  case  the  daily  increase  of  weight 
was  2  Ibs.  4  ounces,  as  compared  with  1  Ib.  12  ounces  on  the 
regular  ration.  In  France,  where  these  experiments  were  made, 
considerable  money  profit  resulted  from  the  advantages  the 
molasses  offered. 

Experiments  having  for  their  object  the  determination  of  the 
influence  of  molasses  upon  the  flow  of  milk  are  also  most  inter- 
esting. Notwithstanding  the  difficulty  of  the  experiment,  it 
was  found  that  molasses-fed  cows  gave  ^-pint  more  milk  per 
diem. 

The  comparative  experiments  made  at  Lauchstadt  (Ger- 
many) were  with  swine.  The  first  ration  consisted  of  60  Ibs. 
potatoes,  35  quarts  milk  skimmings.  17.7  Ibs.  barley  balls  per 
1000  Ibs.  live  weight;  this  corresponds  to  5  Ibs.  protein  sub- 
stances, 28  Ibs.  non-nitric  substances.  The  daily  increase  in 
weight  was  a  fraction  more  than  a  pound.  The  second  ration 
consisted  of  60  Ibs.  potatoes,  35  quarts  of  milk  skimmings 
(mixed  with  equal  parts  of  barley  balls  and  third-grade  sugar), 
17.7  Ibs.  barley  balls  and  12  Ibs.  sugar  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight. 
In  this  case  the  daily  increase  was  2  Ibs.  The  pigs  experi- 
mented with  weighed  110  Ibs.  to  121  Ibs.  The  pigs  were  sold 
at  10  cents  a  pound,  which  means  that  the  sugar  used  at  calcu- 
lations made  was  worth  5  cents  a  pound  during  the  first  part  of 
the  experiments,  and  if  the  feeding  continued  its  worth  would 
be  reduced  2.5  cents  a  pound,  which  means  considerable  money 
for  a  low-grade  product.  Upon  the  market  no  complaint  was 
made  as  regards  the  quality  of  the  meat;  on  the  contrary, 
butchers  declared  that  the  hams,  etc.,  were  of  an  excellent 
quality.  During  the  feeding  it  was  noticed  that  the  pigs  were 
very  thirsty,  and  an  important  essential  for  the  success  was  that 
an  ample  supply  of  water  be  placed  at  their  disposal.  It  is  also 


VARIED    MOLASSES    COMBINATIONS.  251 

important  not  to  give  salt  during  the  feeding,  as  the  residuum 
molasses  contains  sufficient  for  all  emergencies.  About  25 
grams  of  precipitated  chalk  and  25  grams  of  phosphate  of  lime 
are  added  to  the  ration  each  day. 

Recently  it  has  been  proposed  to  make  a  mixture  of  40  parts  Varied  molasses 
corn-meal  cake  and  60  parts  molasses.     This  special  oil  cake  is  combinations, 
very  rich  in  protein,  and  naturally  constitutes  a  valuable  nutri- 
ent.    It  has  since  been  proposed  to  mix  75  parts  molasses  and 
25   parts   peat.     In    France   this   molasses   combination   costs 
about  $1.60  per  100  kilos  (about  73  cents  per  100  Ibs). 

Three  popular  combinations  are  as  follows:  (1)  2  parts 
molasses;  \  part  wheat  bran;  1^  parts  flour.  (2)  2  parts 
molasses;  3  parts  malt  sprouts.  (3)  2  parts  molasses;  3  parts 
rice  flour. 

As  regards  the  last  mixture,  it  is  interesting  to  call  attention 
to  the  fact  that  according  to  Briera,  rice  flour  is  not  suitable  for 
the  preparation  of  a  molasses  forage.  For  horses  he  recom- 
mends especially  two  parts  molasses,  three  parts  oat  waste;  for 
swine,  two  parts  molasses  and  two  parts  lentil  waste. 

Weiske  manufactures  a  forage  containing  J  molasses,  J  wheat 
bran,  £  fish  powder.  Under  these  circumstances  he  obtained  a 
forage  rich  in  nitrogenous  substances  and  possessing  a  heavy 
percentage  of  calcic  phosphate. 

As  a  synopsis  of  the  action  of  all  the  forages  named,  one  need 
only  pass  in  review  the  experiments  of  Gerland  with  molasses 
forages,  which  had  the  following  compositions: 

MOLASSES  FORAGES  (GERLAXD). 

Molasses,  50  p.  Molasses,  50  p.  Molasses,  50  p.  Molasses.  80  p.  Molasses,  40  p. 

Palm  oil  cake,  50  p.  Bran,  50  p.        Distiller's  rnash,50 p.  Peat,  20  p.         Corn  sprouts.40 p. 

The  experiments  were  preceded  for  fifteen  days  by  a  prepara- 
tory feeding,  so  as  to  accustom  the  animals,  little  by  little,  to 
the  standard  combination  upon  which  they  were  to  live  during 
the  period  of  the  experiment.  The  experiment  proper  lasted 
ten  days.  The  sheep  were  fed  three  times  a  day.  They  re- 
ceived first  an  intensive  forage,  then  a  ligneous  forage  with  the 
remains  of  the  intensive  forage.  In  the  morning  water  was 


252      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

allowed  at  will,  and  during  the  first  days  they  were  permitted 
to  run  around  the  stable  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  All  these 
rations  are  calculated  upon  a  basis  of  1,000  kilos  live  weight. 
The  increase  in  weight  per  individual  during  the  ten  days  with 
different  combinations  varied  from  0  to  0. 7  kilos. 

The  preparations  experimented  with  were  accepted  by  the 
animals  fed  with  one  exception,  and  this  was  possibly  due  to 
the  fact  that  it  contained  cacao  wastes,  which  are  bitter. 
Another  ration  resulted  in  a  violent  diarrhoea.  It  contained 
4.8  kilos  of  molasses  for  1,000  kilos  live  weight,  while  the 
others,  of  which  the  effects  \vere  not  unfavorable,  contained 
only  4  kilos  of  molasses.  With  this  molasses  forage  sheep  were 
in  a  most  excited  condition,  which  is  contrary  to  the  obser- 
vations of  Ramm,  who  has  never  been  able  to  notice  an  unfavor- 
able influence  upon  the  animal  or  its  wool  from  molasses  feeding. 

The  increase  of  weight  caused  by  a  kilo  of  sugar  consumed 
represents  in  value  54  pfennigs  (about  5  cents  per  Ib. ),  but 
sugar  in  the  molasses  is  only  worth  14  pfennigs  (about  1  \  cents). 
Consequently  the  feeding  with  molasses  may  be  considered  very 
lucrative,  while  feeding  with  sugar  is  supposed  to  be  quite  the 
contrary. 

Desirable  limits       The  quantity  of  molasses  it  is  possible  to  feed  depends  partly 
in  molasses    upon  the  suguar  it  contains.     The  salt  constituents  of  such 
feeding.      molasses  do  not  all  possess  the  same  action,  and  are  not  con- 
tained  in   all  molasses  in  the  same  proportion.     Hoppe  has 
noticed   that  acid  molasses  gives  far  better  results  in  feeding 
steers  than  when  the  residuum  is  alkaline.     The  forage  added 
to  the  molasses  during  feeding  also  has  an  important  influence 
and  brings  about  very  varied  results.     The  general  nature  of  the 
animal  fed  is  also  a  factor  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Herewith  are  the  quantities  recommended  by  some  authori- 
ties: 


MONEY    VALUE    OF    MOLASSES.  253 

VARYING  MOLASSES  RATIONS  FOR  DIFFERENT  ANIMALS. 


Animals  fed. 


Working  oxen  per  1000  kilos  live  weight. . 
Growing  steers  per  1000  kilos  live  weight. . 

Milch  cows  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight 

Milch  cows,  during  gestation,  per  1000  ) 
Ibs.  live  weight j 

Growing  sheep  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight. . . 

Lambs  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight 

Full  grown  heavy  sheep 

Horses 


Briem. 


3  to  4  kilos. 


Schende  (Germany)  sugar 
factory. 


H    c  i  ii^o    '  (Commence  with  2  Ibs.  then 
4  to  6  kilos.    J         / 


2V  Ibs 


3>/  to  4  Ibs. 
•  Commence  W1'tn  2 


%  Ibs. 

gib* 


/Commence  with 
I 


Ib.  then 


f  Commence  with  2  Ibs.  then 
1     4  Ibs. 

For  swine  commence  with  %  kilo  per  1000  kilos  live  weight  and  gradually  increase  to 
1  kilo. 

The  selection  of  feeds  to  be  given  at  the  same  time  with 
molasses  should  be  made  with  care,  always  allowing  for  the 
special  properties  of  each  of  them,  to  say  nothing  of  their  market 
prices. 

Making  allowance  for  their  price  upon  the  market  and  their 
nutrients,  they  may  be  classified  as  follows:  molasses  and  palm 
oil  cake,  wheat  bran  and  molasses,  distillers'  waste  and 
molasses,  peat  and  molasses,  corn  sprouts  and  molasses,  cos- 
settes  and  molasses,  and  finally,  but  far  down  in  the  scale,  is 
sugar  from  the  first  strike  of  the  pan. 

It  is  for  the  breeder  to  determine  from  experience  what  com- 
bination is  best  suited  to  his  animals.  Opinions  differ  very 
much  as  to  the  manner  of  absorbing  the  molasses  and  the  in- 
gredients that  are  to  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

If  the  question  is  considered  on  a  mathematical  basis,  taking  Money  value  of 
existing  prices  of  fodders  and  their  unit  value  based  upon  the  molasses, 
valuable  nutritive  elements  they  contain,  it  is  shown  that  in 
France  molasses  would  have  to  sell  at  $14.40  per  ton,  to  actually 
cost  more  than  rice  flour,  and  even  then  it  would  be  possible 
for  the  residuum  to  compare  favorably,  dollar  for  dollar,  with 
wheat  and  rye  brans.  Prof.  Grandeau  says,  even  admitting 
both  costs  to  be  the  same,  that  molosses  has  within  itself  a 
superiority  for  feeding  purposes,  as  the  non-nitrogenous  ele- 
ments, as  previously  explained,  are  superior,  owing  to  the  high 
percentage  of  sugar  entering  into  their  composition.  It  is  for 


254  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC! 

the  farmer  of  each  locality,  either  in  California,  Nebraska  or 
elsewhere,  to  determine  just  how  it  may  be  to  his  pecuniary  ad- 
vantage to  carry  the  residuum  from  factory  to  the  farm. 
Classification  of      Molasses  may  be  used  for  feeding  purposes  in  several  differ- 
molasses  feeds.  en£  manners:  (A)  In  its  raw  state;  (B)  Combined  writh  dried 
or  pressed  cossettes;  (C)  Combined  with  some  absorbent  such 
as  peat,  bran,  etc.;  (D)  Combined  with  blood,   (E)  In  various 
combinations  baked  in  an  oven,  and  (F)  Bread  molasses. 
Diluted  and  com-      Molasses  may  be  fed  to  cattle  in  two  forms:  either  in  a  liquid 
bined  molasses  gtate  or  mixed  with  a  feed.     They  both  have  certain  advantages 
n9'    as  well  as  disadvantages,  and  it  is  for  the  farmer  to  determine 
his  preference.     Molasses  may  be  diluted  in  water  and  fed  as  a 
drink;  or  it  may  be  sprinkled  over  a  forage  such  as  chopped 
straw.     Molasses  is  not  readily   dissolved  in  cold  water,   and 
therefore  solution  is  effected  mainly  in  hot  water.     For  dilution, 
warm  water  may  be  used,  either  with  or  without  steam,  and 
after  being  carefully  measured,  it  is  emptied  into  the  feeding 
trough. 

It  has  been  proposed,  in  order  to  avoid  the  use  of  warm 
water,  that  the  molasses  be  placed  in  a  small  bag,  and  that  this 
be  suspended  at  night  in  the  trough  from  which  the  animals 
drink.  The  molasses  will  gradually  pass  through  the  bag  and 
will  slowly  ooze  out  in  thin  streams,  which  readily  dilute  at  the 
bottom  of  the  receptacle  containing  the  water,  it  being  sufficient 
to  stir  the  liquid  slightly  in  the  morning  in  order  to  obtain  a 
homogeneous  solution.  One  may  also  dissolve  molasses  in  dis- 
tillers' mash  in  cases  where  this  special  residuum  is  used  in 
cattle  feeding. 

The  diluting  of  molasses  is  considered  excellent,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  the  animals  being  fed  become  gradually 
accustomed  to  this  new  regimen.  But  while  diluted  molasses 
feeding  may  be  economical,  it  is  upon  general  principles  a  mis- 
take, and  has  many  inconveniences.  Its  transportation  is  both 
difficult  and  unpleasant.  The  mixing  of  same  with  feeds  is 
also  no  easy  operation,  and  a  trough  in  which  it  is  poured  can 
be  subsequently  over-charged  with  micro-organisms  of  various 
kinds  that  ultimately  cause  sickness. 

Without  doubt  molasses  residuum    as   it   leaves   the  sugar 


MOLASSES    FOR    DIGESTIBLE    FORAGE.  255 

factory  would  be  very  unpleasant,  and  consequently  not  accept- 
able to  live  stock  in  general.  It  is  sticky  in  its  nature  and 
adheres  to  everything  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  All 
receptacles  in  which  it  is  handled  have  to  be  washed  with  hot 
water  before  becoming  properly  cleaned,  which  offers  no 
difficulty  where  the  water  and  steam  may  be  had  ad  libitum, 
but  would  prove  a  question  of  difficult  solution  for  the  smaller 
farmer. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  use  of  molasses  preparations 
is  becoming  more  and  more  general,  it  is  apparently  the  direct 
manner  of  feeding,  without  preliminary  mixing,  that  still  con- 
tinues in  vogue  in  Germany,  Austria  and  Sweden.  However, 
molasses  combinations  have,  without  doubt,  great  advantages, 
as  they  may  be  readily  handled,  and  are  moreover  possessed  of 
considerable  keeping  power.  The  use  of  molasses  without 
mixing,  in  the  long  run,  would  cost  more,  and  when  taken 
alone  there  is  always  danger  of  diarrhoea;  but  there  are  many 
exceptions  to  this  rule. 

Some  years  since  it  was  claimed  that  it  was  possible  to  form  Diluted  followed 
with  molasses  a  readily  digestible  combination  for  live  stock  by  concentrated 

feeding.     Among   the   advantages   claimed  was  that    of   over-    molasses  for 

diaestible  foraae 
coming  the  diuretic  and  laxative  effects  of  molasses,  due  to  its 

excessive  salt  percentage.  The  feeds  of  the  combination  are 
submitted  to  a  preliminary  treatment.  For  example,  when 
saw-dust  is  combined  with  molasses,  before  the  object  aimed  at 
is  realized  a  large  quantity  of  herbs  must  be  used,  and  in  order 
that  the  bitter  constituents  contained  in  the  herbs  shall  become 
active,  the  product  is  submitted  to  a  sort  of  preliminary  steeping 
in  diluted  molasses.  It  is  claimed  that  whereas  concentrated 
molasses  or  syrup  may  be  considered  antiseptic  in  its  action  and 
will  consequently  arrest  fermentation,  a  diluted  solution  of 
molasses  on  the  other  hand  will  hasten  fermentation.  Conse- 
quently, as  soon  as  herbs  wrhich  contain  the  essential  sour  sub- 
stances are  steeped  in  diluted  molasses,  there  follows  an  acid 
fermentation,  which  tends  to  destroy  the  glycosides,  at  the  same 
time  liberating  the  active  elements  of  the  plants;  now  if  this  is 
followed  by  a  concentrated  molasses  treatment,  there  will  result 
specific  advantages  from  a  nutrient  standpoint,  during  the 


256  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

action  of  digestion.  The  practical  working  of  this  mode  con- 
sists in  using  an  herb  rich  in  glycosides,  which  is  chopped  up 
dry  and  moistened  with  a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  molasses.  The 
mixture  is  left  for  several  days  at  the  ambient  temperature,  and 
Tfr  ^0  A  concentrated  molasses  is  added  to  it,  which  has  been 
previously  mixed  with  some  fibrous  substance,  saw-dust, 
chopped  straw,  and  finally  with  lime. 

During  the  first  phases  of  fermentation,  instead  of  using  the 
sour  herbs  alone,  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  saw-dust  may  be  added  to 
them  before  starting  the  fermentation  with  diluted  molasses, 
which  will  then  be  unusually  active.  The  main  feature  of  this 
mode  consists  in  bringing  about  a  decomposition  of  the  glyco- 
sides by  fermentation  through  the  intervention  of  diluted 
molasses. 

Proskowetz  pours  concentrated  molasses  over  forages  and  then 
does  the  mixing  with  suitable  pitch-forks.  With  this  combina- 
tion he  has  fed  14-  to  2  kilos  of  the  residuum  per  diem  to  sixty 
steers,  while  fifty  other  steers  were  fed  with  the  ordinary  rations. 
The  experiment  showed  that  there  was  an  increase  of  one-fifth 
kilo  per  diem  for  the  molasses-fed  animals. 

Ramm  undertook  a  very  interesting  series  of  investigations  of 
feeding  milch  cows  with  liquid  molasses.  Twelve  animals  were 
fed  with  rations  consisting  of  10  kilos  hay,  3  kilos  wheat 
middlings,  50  kilos  of  forage  beets,  4  kilos  flour,  and  8  kilos  of 
molasses  per  diem  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight.  The  molasses  was 
heated  to  70°  C.  and  spread  over  the  forage.  The  total  was 
thoroughly  mixed,  and  the  product  was  eaten  with  relish.  Ex- 
perience appears  to  prove  that  when  a  cow  does  not  derive  any 
benefit  from  this  feed,  there  are  no  known  means  by  which  the 
animal  may  be  accustomed  to  even  diluted  molasses.  These 
experiments  showed  that  this  residuum  was  most  excellent  for 
the  production  of  milk:  its  percentage  of  dry  and  fatty  sub- 
stances increased,  and  the  milk  and  butter  were  absolutely 
normal. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  conclusions  from  these  ex- 
periments were  to  a  certain  extent  in  contradiction  to  previous 
observations  made  by  the  leading  agronomists,  viz.,  when  this 
molasses  forage  combination  was  fed  to  cows  during  gestation, 


MOLASSES    FOR   DIGESTIBLE    FORAGE.  257 

and  even  after  the  calf  was  born,  no  evil  effects  followed,  either 
for  the  cows  or  for  the  calves. 

Hoppe  discussing  this  question  has  declared  that  the  health 
of  the  animals  fed  was  most  excellent,  and  no  digestive  compli- 
cations were  noticed,  even  when  seven  months  had  elapsed 
from  the  time  of  pregnancy,  and  5  kilos  of  liquid  molasses  were 
mixed  with  concentrates  per  1000  kilos  live  weight.  According 
to  this  authority  the  laxative  action  could  not  be  attributed  to 
the  salts,  but  to  the  saccharates,  and  especially  to  saccharate  of 
potassium.  With  the  other  cows  fed,  that  were  not  undergoing 
this  period,  the  result  was  that  there  was  a  simple  increase  of 
milk  without  augmentation  of  weight.  On  the  other  hand  it 
is  claimed  that  a  milch  cow  fed  with  the  molasses  combination 
during  gestation  will  subsequently  not  only  give  more  milk,  but 
will  also  increase  in  weight  under  this  special  residuum  feeding. 
17 


CHAPTER  II. 
Molasses  Cossette  Combinations. 

Cosseftes,  fresh      THE  cossette-m classes  forage  is  most  important  for  the  sugar 
and  dried,  mixed  industry.     This  feed  is  prepared  in  two  ways,  either  by  using 
with  molasses  for  dried  cossettes  with  the  molasses,   or  moist  cossettes  as  they 
cattle  feeding,  jeave  the  presses,  the  combination  in  each  case  being  heated. 

The  first  method  is  not  practicable,  because,  as  the  molasses 
combines  only  with  great  difficulty  with  dried  cossettes,  the 
mixture  is  very  difficult  to  realize  without  the  use  of  a  special 
machine  for  grinding  a  large  portion  of  the  cossettes. 

The  dried  cossettes,  however,  constitute  an  excellent  combina- 
tion with  molasses  by  mixing  them  in  the  proportion  of  from  5 
to  6  parts  molasses  for  100  parts  of  this  dried  product.  The 
average  composition  of  the  combination  is:  Water  8.5,  protein 
8.7,  cellulose  14.0,  fatty  substances  0.3,  non-nitrogenous  62.0, 
ash  6.5.  /? 

Wusterhagen  adds  pressed  cossettes  to  both  hot  and  cold 
molasses  and  subsequently  submits  them  to  drying.  It  is 
rational  to  mix  these  two  products  in  the  same  proportions  as 
they  are  obtained  at  the  factory.  Under  these  conditions  one 
obtains  for  100  parts  of  dried  cossettes  six  to  seven  parts  of 
molasses,  sometimes  ten.  Under  all  circumstances  it  is  desir- 
able not  to  use  an  excess  of  molasses  in  order  to  prevent  the 
combination  from  being  sticky.  Werner  and  Pfleiderer  have  a 
special  apparatus  for  this  mixing,  which  is  heated  by  steam  and 
in  which  dried  cossettes  may  be  combined  with  molasses  under 
satisfactory  conditions. 

This  forage  is  now  recognized  as  a  staple  commodity  in  Ger- 
many. Its  average  composition  is  about  as  follows: 

(258) 


MOLASSES  AND  DRIED  COSSETTES  IX  COMBINATION.        259 

Per  cent. 

Moisture 80.1 

Ash 6.47 

Fatty  substances 0.40 

Nitrogenous  substances   8.77 

Cellulose 17.61 

Non-nitrogenous 60.31 

Molasses  and  dried  cossettes  have  a  more  favorable  action 
upon  the  organism  when  considered  from  a  general  point  of  view 
than  has  molasses  when  fed  separately;  furthermore,  owing  to 
the  more  or  less  resisting  texture  of  the  residuum  in  question, 
the  substances  that  fill  the  digestive  canal  have  greater  consist- 
ency, which  is  certainly  an  advantage,  as  it  obviates  all  possi- 
bility of  diarrhoea  that  molasses  in  a  certain  degree  always 
creates.  It  would  thus  appear  that  molasses  increases  in  cer- 
tain cases  the  assimilation  of  the  nitrogenous  substances  of  the 
cossettes,  and  one  may  notice,  with  this  forage,  an  important 
augmentation  in  the  weight  of  the  animals  to  which  it  is  fed. 

Xatanson  has  attempted  to  prepare  molasses  cossettes  in  an      Molasses 
entirely   different   way.      While   this  method  has  never  been  cossette  prtpar- 
practically  accepted,  it  is,  nevertheless,  interesting  to  give  it  a  at.ion  in 
passing    notice.     Into    the    diffusors    proper,    containing    the 
exhausted  cossettes,  molasses  is  introduced  in  a  more  or  less 
diluted  form.     The  sugar  that  it  contains  passes,  by  osmosis, 
into  the  interior  of  the  cells  of  the  cossettes  and  accumulates  in 
increasing   quantities.     The    operation    is   stopped    when   the 
excess  of  molasses  in  the  cossettes  is  such  that  the  compound 
contains  63.47  per  cent,  of  carbohydrates,  of  which  41  per  cent, 
is   sacchaiose.     According   to    Petermann    these   cossettes   will 
keep  for  a  period  of  six  months  without  undergoing  the  slightest 
change. 

Strohmer  says  that  a  good  mixture  may  be  obtained  with  2    Molasses  end 
per  cent,  dried  cossettes,  10  per  cent,  water,  and  one  per  cent,  dried  cossettes 
molasses  heated  to  40°  C.     After  cooling  and  having  remained  in  combinatl°n- 
for  several  days  in  a  cold  environment,  the  product  can  be  put 
in  bags,  or  it  may  be  pressed  into  cakes,  the  form  in  which 
many  of  the  staple  oil  meals  used  in  cattle  feeding  are  often 
found  on  the  market.     In  some  cases  it  is  found  desirable  to 


260 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


grind  the  dried  cossettes  before  mixing.     Many  of  these  dried 
cossettes  and  molasses  combinations  are  patented. 

The  preparations  of  dried  cossettes  and  molasses  mentioned 
above,  correspond  to  the  production  of  2.5  residuum  molasses 
after  a  sugar  campaign.  Herewith  are  the  analyses  of  some 
molasses  and  dried  cossette  combinations,  according  to  the  best 
German  authorities: 

ANALYSES  or  MOLASSES  AND  DRIED  COSSETTE  COMBINATIONS. 


Per  cent. 

7  67 

Per  cent. 

5  77 

Per  cent; 

9  00 

Nitrogenous  substances  .... 
Fa,ttv  substances  *  •  • 

*10.00 

0  85 

|9.65 
0  70 

}8.9 
0  35 

9Q  OQ 

nqu 

90  90 

QO  QO 

4Q  17 

QQ  OK 

10  40 

17  17 

H40 

Ash  

6  37 

5  42 

7  «o 

Silica    

0  30 

0  14 

0  ^0 

*  Six  per  cent,  protein.       |6.45  per  cent,  protein.       J 5.65  per  cent,  protein. 

Increase  of        The   dried   cossettess   and  molasses    constitute  an   excellent 

weight  from  the  forag6)  anc]  the  on]y  ODe?  accOrding  to  Ramm,  which  will  give 

ar '       from  the  very  start  of  its  feeding,  an  increase  in  the  weight  of 

the  animals  fed.     This  is  just  the  opposite  result  obtained  with 

most  beet-molasses  forages,  as  during  the  early  days  of  feeding 

there  is  generally  an  incomprehensible  decrease  in  weight. 

A  well-known  expert  declares  that  the  molasses  and  dried 
cossettes  never  form  gases  in  the  intestinal  canal,  which  are 
always  to  be  dreaded  with  palm  oil  meal. 

The  influence  upon  milk  production  is  very  considerable,  and 
much  more  so  than  is  that  of  liquid  molasses  feeding. 
Dried  cossettes      The  experience  of  Olschbauer,    who   undertook    a  series   of 
and  molasses  comparative  experiments  with  milch  cows,  one  series  being  fed 
with  molasses  and  dried  cossettes  and  the  other  with  pressed 
cossettes  and  cossettes,  demonstrated  that  the  best  results  were  obtained  when 
molasses,     the  cossettes  were  dried,  provided,  however,  that  the  residuum 
product  could  be  had  at  a  reasonable  price. 

Satisfactory  results  have  been  obtained  by  mixing  the  pressed 
residuum  cossettes  with  molasses  before  siloing;  but  this  mode 
is  not  to  be  recommended  on  account  of  the  excessive  fermen- 
tation that  is  sure  to  follow. 


EARLY  EXPERIMEXES  WITH  PEAT  MOLASSES  FEEDING.       261 

Wagner  attempted  to  overcome  the  action  of  potassic  salts   Early  «peri- 

upon  the  digestive  system  and  at  the  same  time  give  molasses  ments  Wlth  *at 

.    .       .,      .,,  molasses  feeding, 

certain  keeping  qualities  by  mixing  it  with  peat. 

Among  the  early  practical  experiments  in  the  peat-molasses 
combinations  may  be  mentioned  those  in  Sallschutz  (Austria) 
in  1895,  which  were  the  outcome  of  the  exceptionally  high  sell- 
ing price  of  farinaceous  products.  The  early  mixtures  consisted 
of  molasses  containing  48  per  cent,  sugar,  to  which  was  added 
oil  meal.  This  proportion  was  later  changed  to  40  parts  oil 
meal  and  60  parts  molasses.  The  addition  of  molasses  to  other 
feeds  was  abandoned  after  several  experiments.  The  60  per 
cent,  molasses  fodder  had  the  following  composition:  Water 
21.4  per  cent.,  nitrogenous  substances  11.1,  fatty  substances 
0.7,  non-nitrogenous  53.5,  of  which  28.8  per  cent,  is  sugar,  6.7 
per  cent,  cellulose,  and  6.9  per  cent.  ash. 

The  peat-molasses  combination  became  popular  in  1896, 
when  20  parts  peat  were  combined  with  80  parts  molasses. 
This  combination  contained  38  to  40  per  cent,  sugar,  and  the 
product  sold  for  80  cents  for  220  Ibs. ,  or  J  cent  per  pound. 

The  peat  absorbs  the  molasses,  so  that  the  ultimate  forage  is 
very  uniform.  The  acids  of  peat  neutralize  the  salts  of  molasses 
and  render  them  harmless  when  fed.  The  peat  used  should  be 
fine  in  texture  and  possess  a  very  considerable  absorbing  power. 
This  pulverized  product  can  absorb,  according  to  Schwartz, 
three  or  four  times  its  weight  of  molasses  without  losing  the  ad- 
vantage of  forming  a  combination  that  may  be  easily  handled. 

Experience  shows  that  for  practical  purposes  the  best  results 
are  obtained  by  mixing  it  with  twice  its  weight  of  molasses. 
Under  these  circumstances  one  obtains,  according  to  Weigmann, 
a  forage  having  the  following  composition: 

Per  cent. 

Water 24.85 

Protein   8.34 

Fatty  substances 0.87 

Ash  7. 54 

Cellulose 5.80 

Xon-nitrogenous 52.60 

Dr.  Albert  says  there  follows  a  considerable  increase  in  weight, 


262  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

much  more  than  can  be  obtained  with  bran-molasses  com- 
binations, and  that  it  is,  in  every  way,  far  superior  to  liquid 
molasses. 

Peat  and          In  the  investigations  that  were  made  at   Lauchstadt,  Ger- 

molasses  better  many,  it  was  noticed  that  in  a  mixture  with  bran  or  peat,  the 

than  bran  and  molasses  gave  a  better  result  than  in  its  raw  state,  which  was 

evidently  explained  by  its  better  sub-division.     The  advantages 

to  be  thus  gained  more  than  compensate  for  the  expenses  of  its 

manipulation. 

•  The  advantage  of  this  forage  is  that  it  is  gradually  absorbed 
in  the  digestive  canal  and  the  constipating  action  of  peat  is  thus 
counterbalanced.  The  influence  of  potassic  salts  is  no  longer 
felt.  One  would  especially  notice  the  advantages  of  these  prop- 
erties if  it  were  fed  at  the  same  time  as  beet  leaves. 

Peat,  thus  absorbed,  has  the  advantage  of  increasing  three- 
fold the  amount  or  quantity  cf  molasses  possible  to  be  fed  to 
live  stock  per  diem. 

Possible  intes-       Some  investigators  declare  that  peat  causes  intestinal  troubles, 
final  complica-  an(j  can>  furthermore,  owing  to  its  power  of  absorbing  mois- 
peabmolaTses  ture'   ^rm^   aD°ut  dangerous   inflammation.     The  question  is 
feeding.      frequently  asked,  Will  intestinal  complications  not  follow  the 
feeding  of  peat,  a  product  that  is  in  reality  indigestible  ?     This 
has  not  proved  to  be  the  case,  and  very  few  complaints  have 
been  made.     If  four  pounds  of  peat-molasses  are  fed,  the  quan- 
tity of  the  indigestible  powder  passing  through  the  alimentary 
canal  is  only  J  Ib. ,  which  is  so  small  that  it  need  not  be  con- 
sidered. 

Doctor  Albert  has  made  post-mortem  examinations  of  animals 
fed  upon  this  peat-molasses  combination  up  to  limits  of  4  kilos 
per  diem,  and  declared  that  these  assertions  are  very  much 
exaggerated,  as  he  has  been  unable  to  trace  the  slightest 
inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  intestines.  He 
has,  moreover,  been  unable  to  find  any  peat  deposits  in  the 
intestines. 

According  to  Jorss,  it  is  precisely  to  the  peat's  power  of  ab- 
sorbing moisture  that  the  advantages  of  this  fodder  are  due. 
The  experiments  of  Albert  have  only  demonstrated,  in  a  prac- 
tical manner,  the  advantages  of  this  forage,  and  it  is  now  being 


DIGESTIBILITY    OF    PEAT.  263 

used  with  great  success  in  the  cavalry  of  Germany,  Austria, 
Belgium,  Denmark  and  Russia. 

In  the  experiments  in  cattle  feeding  made  at  the  Moecken  Digestibility  of 
agronomic  station,  the  main  object  in  view  was  to  determine  the  peat* 
coefficient  of  digestibility  of  peat,  and  it  was  concluded  that  the 
product  is  indigestible;  which  means  that  it  passes  through  the 
alimentary  canal  without  being  assimilated,  and  its  presence 
diminishes  the  digestibility  of  the  other  elements  of  which  the 
fodder  is  made  up.  From  a  practical  point  of  view,  peat  has 
no  money  value;  but  this  conclusion  differs  from  that  of  many 
other  investigators,  and  for  this  reason  a  few  hints  respecting 
the  manner  in  which  the  experiments  were  conducted  are  of 
more  than  passing  moment.  Sheep  were  first  fed  with  hay  - 
alone,  with  hay  and  molasses,  and  with  peat-molasses  combina- 
tions. The  coefficient  of  digestibility  is  obtained  by  comparing 
the  amount  of  sugar,  nitrogenous  elements,  starch,  etc.,  con- 
tained in  a  given  quantity  fed  to  an  animal  and  that  thrown 
out  and  found  in  the  excrement.  If  100  grains  of  starch  were 
fed  and  35  were  found  in  the  excrement,  the  coefficient  of 
digestibility  would  then  be  65.  This  is  by  no  means  a  constant 
quantity,  for  it  can  be  made  to  increase  or  decrease  by  the  addi- 
tion of  other  substances,  as  is  the  case  with  peat-molasses  com- 
binations, and  the  digestibility  of  hay  was  very  much  reduced 
by  the  presence  of  peat.  The  averages  of  these  experiments 
were  as  follows:  In  the  peat  there  were  200.6  grams  organic 
substances;  12.2  grams  nitrogenous  substances;  112.1  non- 
nitrogenous  substances;  4.9  raw  fat;  71.3  raw  cellulose,  and  in 
the  excrements  there  were  216.5  grams  organic  substances;  19.6 
nitrogenous  substances;  122.1  grams  non-nitrogenous;  4.1  grams 
raw  fat,  and  69.9  grams  raw  cellulose.  These  figures  show  that 
there  was  more  nutrient  thrown  off  than  the  peat  contained; 
consequently  it  was  drawn  from  the  hay,  wrhich  is  an  actual 
money  loss.  Hence  the  agronomist  who  undertook  these  ex- 
periments concludes  that  peat  does  not  offer  for  the  purpose  the 
advantages  claimed,  and  some  other  substance  should  be  com- 
bined with  the  molasses  residuum  when  cattle  feeding  is  the  ' 
object  sought. 

Consequently  it  is  very  justly  concluded  that  peat  within 


264  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

itself  does  not  possess  any  nutritive  value,  but  diminishes  the 
feeding  properties  that  would  have  otherwise  existed. 
Opinions  differ      Great  variance  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  nourishing  value  of 

as  to  the  value  the  peat-molasses  combinations;   for  example,    Maercker  says 
of  peat-molasses,,     ,  ..  , 
for  feeding  same  nuntive  value  as  molasses  and  wheat  bran; 

Jorss  asserts  that  weight  for  weight  it  is  equivalent  to  wheat, 
and  that,  furthermore,  it  is  much  more  economical,  the  appetite 
of  the  animals  fed  increases,  and  there  are  no  evidences  of  colics. 

Certain  authorities,  such  as  Gerland,  Hassen,  Vibrans  and 
Keller,  do  not  favor  peat-molasses.  They  argue  that  when 
purchasing  peat-molasses  one  pays  for  not  only  the  price  of  the 
molasses,,  but  also  for  the  peat,  which  is  simply  ballast,  and 
does  not  contain  protein.  One  is  obliged  also  to  pay  for  the 
manual  labor  for  the  mixing  and  other  expenses. 

Kellner,  Zahn  and  Gillan  show  that  peat,  instead  of  possess- 
ing a  nutritive  value,  carried  out  with  the  excrements  small 
quantities  of  nutrients  that  would  have,  or  at  least  should  have, 
been  taken  up  or  assimilated  by  the  animal  fed.  Molasses 
fodders  gain  nothing  in  nourishing  value  by  being  combined 
with  peat;  hence  it  is  urged  that  this  product  is  simply  a  useless 
ballast  in  the  stomach. 

Conclusions  as      Peat  offers  advantages    in  more  ways  than  one,   and  after 
to  value  of    weighing  all  the  arguments  for  and  against  this  so-called  ballast 
Masses  jn  the  stomach,  combined  with  our  personal  observations,  the 
conclusion  is  drawn  that  up  to  the  present  time  but  few  sub- 
stances have  been  found  offering  the  advantages  of  this  product. 
It  is  important,  notwithstanding,  to  pass  in  review  the  various 
arguments  brought  forward. 

All  the  molasses  fodders  proposed  and  used  have  one  advan- 
tage, they  are  very  simple,  and  the  farmer  with  only  a  very 
limited  knowledge  of  the  essentials  for  cattle  feeding,  may  com- 
bine his  rations  so  as  to  obtain  most  satisfactory  results.  Peat, 
as  used  in  France,  has  the  following  composition:  Water  18.90 
per  cent.,  ash  2.32  per  cent.,  cellulose  13.20  per  cent.,  pentosane 
8.83  per  cent,  black  substances  14.40  per  cent,  (containing  5.13 
per  cent,  nitrogen),  various  nitrogenous  substances  (averaging 
6.25  per  cent,  nitrogen)  1.80  per  cent.,  unknown  substances 
40.5  per  cent.  A  fact  not  generally  known  is  that  the  nitro- 


VALUE  OF  PEAT  MOLASSES  FOR  FEEDING.       265 

genous  substances  of  peat  are  those  black  elements  which  are 
soluble  in  ammonia.  Experiments  under  special  official 
auspices  have  shown  that  when  they  are  submitted  to  artificial 
digestion  the  nitrogenous  elements  remain  inactive;  for  1.3  total 
nitrogen  there  was  only  0.08  that  had  become  soluble.  The 
other  elements  of  peat  are  apparently  not  assimilated,  and  if 
they  offer  no  objectionable  features  during  their  absorption,  com- 
paratively little  fault  may  be  found  with  their  use.  That  it  is 
a  ballast  appears  a  secondary  consideration  as  compared  with 
the  advantages  it  offers  as  a  wonderful  molasses  absorber.  The 
Toury  peat  molasses  combination  has  the  following  composi- 
tion: Water  19.00  per  cent.,  ash  8.91  per  cent.,  sugar  31.70 
percent,  various  soluble  substances  20.93  per  cent,  insoluble 
substances  19.46  per  cent.  This  molasses  fodder  consists 
mainly  of  24  per  cent,  peat  and  76  per  cent  slightly  steam- 
diluted  molasses.  Experience  has  shown  that  horses  eat  it  with 
avidity,  and  in  every  respect  there  are  striking  advantages  to  be 
derived  from  its  use.  The  nitrogenous  substances  it  contains 
are  those  black  compounds  before  alluded  to,  and  they  may, 
with  the  amides,  be  considered  as  the  calorific  elements  and  be 
added  to  the  carbohydrates.  Experience  in  France  has  shown 
that  the  total  cost  of  100  kilos  of  this  forage,  as  delivered  at  the 
factory,  is  one  cent  per  pound  or  one  dollar  per  hundred 
pounds.  As  an  example  of  a  practical  ration  for  horses  per 
1000  pounds  live  weight,  may  be  mentioned  crushed  wheat 
7.65  Ibs.,  hay  6.00  Ibs.,  wheat  bran  1.50  Ibs.  In  France  this 
ration  costs  about  50  cents.  It  has  been  found  advantageous 
during  June  only,  due  to  the  special  climatic  conditions  found 
in  the  country,  to  substitute  another  ration  consisting  of  crushed 
wheat  3.4  Ibs.,  peat  molasses  fodder  3.00  Ibs.  and  hay  6.0  Ibs., 
costing  about  32  cents.  After  July  the  ration  consists  of 
crushed  wheat  3.37  Ibs.,  peat-molasses  3.5  Ibs.,  hay  6.5  Ibs. 

At  the  Toury  factory"  this  ration  appears  to  offer  considerable 
economy,  amounting  to  over  fifty  dollars  per  horse  per  annum. 
Furthermore,  the  horses  were  kept  in  a  most  healthy  condition. 
No  colics  followed,  and  their  appetite  continued  good  through- 
out the  period  of  feeding. 

The  molasses-peat  combination  should  be  sold  at  a  reasonable 


266  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

price,  so  as  to  be  within  reach  of  all;  its  market  price  should 
vary  with  that  of  molasses,  and  the  salts  of  which  it  consists, 
to  which  must  be  added  the  cost  of  manufacture.  It  possesses 
special  keeping  powers,  for  even  after  several  months  the  sugar 
percentage  of  the  product  does  not  decrease. 

The  mixture  of  molasses  with  peat  is  rapidly  attaining  an  im- 
portant place  among  the  standard  fodders.  Wagner  dries  the 
peat  obtained  from  moss,  which  is  found  in  considerable  quan- 
tities in  northern  Germany.  Under  the  name  of  "  molassion  " 
it  is  used  in  the  German  artillery  for  feeding  horses,  and  it  has 
become  very  popular. 

Varied  peat  The  Krantz-Boussac  combination  is  very  original  and  deserves 
molasses  combi-  ^o  ^e  considered.  It  consists  in  utilizing  skimmed  milk  in  con- 
ons'  junction  with  molasses.  The  great  difficulty  has  been  the 
transportation  of  the  product,  which  was  increased  by  its  ten- 
dency to  sour  after  a  few  days.  A  new  combination  con- 
sists of  molasses,  peat  meal  and  skimmed  milk.  Experience 
seems  to  show  that  skimmed  milk  in  the  combination  just  men- 
tioned will  no  longer  sour,  is  a  solid  product  and  may  be 
easily  handled.  It  would  appear  that  the  salts  contained  in 
the  residuum  molasses  combined  with  the  antiseptic  .principles 
of  the  peat  prevent  the  lactic  acid  reaction;  the  product  under 
consideration  is  made  up  in  various  forms. 

Feeding  peat       Some    data   has   been    received    said   to    come  from    one  of 
molasses  to   the  officers  in  the  German  army,  who  has  been  making  some 
horses.       important  experiments  in  feeding  horses  with  a  compound  of 
molasses  and  peat  which  has  proved  to  be  highly  satisfactory. 
It  is  claimed  that  the  fodder  increases  the  animal's  appetite, 
facilitates  digestion   and   gives   the  hair  of   horses  a   brilliant 
lustre;    colics  among   the  animals   fed   almost  entirely  disap- 
peared. 

At  first,  the  ration  consisted  of  J  Ib.  of  peat  flour  and  molas- 
ses, the  quantity  being  gradually  increased  to  3  Ibs.  During 
the  early  stages  of  this  feeding  the  horses  refuse  it,  the  black 
color  and  odor  of  the  product  being  evidently  not  pleasing,  but 
later  the  compound  was  eaten  with  avidity.  The  standard 
ration  was  3  Ibs.  of  molasses  compound  per  pound  of  oats. 
When  used  as  a  complementary  fodder,  about  one  pound  per 


WORKING    OXEN    FED    WITH    PEAT    MOLASSES. 


267 


molasses  to 
milch  cows. 


diem  appears  to  meet  the  requirements,  and  may  be  fed  through- 
out the  year.  The  best  results  in  all  cases  were  obtained  with 
horses  that  were  poor  feedeis. 

At  Guhrau  (France)  the  horses  all  received  their  regular  oat 
ration  and  horse  beans  in  which  500  grams  of  molasses  are 
replaced  by  one  kilo  of  peat-molasses.  After  three  days'  feeding 
all  the  animals  accepted  their  new  ration,  and  after  eight  days 
they  ate  it  with  avidity.  Colics  and  other  intestinal  complica- 
tions were  not  encountered,  and  the  hair  and  general  appearance 
of  the  animals  were  most  excellent.  During  the  hard  winter 
work  the  quantity  of  molasses  allowed  was  increased  to  1.5  kilos. 

Milch  cows  may  be  advantageously  fed  with  this  product,  but  Feeding  peat 
certain  precautionary  measures  should  be  taken,  and  under  no 
circumstances  should  it  be  given  to  cows  during  their  calving. 
Later  on,  the  reverse  is  the  case,  and  there  are  many  authori- 
ties to  show  that  it  is  a  mistake  to  feed  more  than  1.1  kilo  of 
molasses  per  diem. 

At  the  Guhrau  beet-sugar  factory  in  1896  the  milch  cows 
received  500  grams  of  palm  oil  meal  combined  with  molasses, 
and  during  the  following  two  years  1.25  kilos  cotton  seed  meal 
and  2  kilos  peat  molasses  were  added  to  the  regular  forage. 
The  quantity  of  milk  obtained  was  all  that  one  could  desire. 

Hollrung  obtained  satisfactory  results  in  milch  cow  feeding 
by  using  2|  Ibs.  For  oxen  he  used  4.4  Ibs.,  for  horn  cattle  6 
Ibs.,  for  horses  2  Ibs.,  and  for  sheep  half  a  pound  per  capita. 

Working  oxen  have  also  been  very  much  benefited  by  one  Working  oxen 
kilo  peat-molasses  per  diem,  their  ration  consisting  of  cotton  and  cattle  fed 

oil  cake,  hav  and  fermented  cossettes,  to  which  were  added  beet    Wlt.  peat" 

molasses, 
tops.     Little  by  little  the  peat-molasses  fed  was  increased  until 

2.5  kilos  were  added  daily  to  the  regular  ration;  but  this  amount 
was  found  to  be  excessive  and  it  was  reduced  to  2  kilos.  The 
oxen  had  an  excellent  appearance.  For  working  cattle  one  may 
feed  without  hesitation  H  to  2  kilos  of  peat-molasses  per  1,000 
kilos  live  weight,  and  the  hydrocarbons  that  this  residuum  con- 
tains are  a  great  assistance  in  the  wrork  that  is  to  be  accomplished. 
Young  steers  may  be  fed  1.5  kilos  peat-molasses  per  head 
and  per  diem.  Experience  shows  that  it  is  a  mistake  to  add 
molasses  to  beet  leaves,  owing  to  the  heavy  percentage  of  salt 
that  the  ration  would  contain. 


268      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

Pigs  fed  with  For  pigs  no  one  can  doubt  the  advantages  of  peat-molasses 
peat-molasses,  combinations,  and  their  droppings  show  beyond  cavil  that  there 
has  been  a  complete  assimilation  of  this  fodder  in  their  digestive 
tubes.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  unpleasant  smell  noticeable 
in  all  pig-sties  is  hardly  perceptible  when  these  molasses  com- 
binations are  fed,  showing  that  no  butyric  fermentation  has 
occurred  in  the  digestive  canal.  One  may  feed  without  hesita- 
tion 5  kilos  of  peat-molasses  per  1,000  kilos  live  weight. 

It  is  very  important  to  notice  that  this  combination  should 
not  be  fed  to  excess.  Schwarts  mixes  one  part  peat  to  two  parts 
of  molasses,  with  boiled  skimmed  milk,  and  thus  obtains  a 
combination  that  is  easily  handled. 

Oat  flour  and  The  mixture  of  oat  flour  or  crushed  oats  has  also  some  im- 
molasses  com-  portant  advantages,  and  forms  when  combined  \vith  molasses  a 
very  valuable  forage.  The  arguments  advanced  in  favor  of  its 
introduction  are  based  mainly  on  the  supposed  fact  that  peat  is 
lacking  in  nutrients  and  is  certainly  very  indigestible.  The 
manner  of  feeding  the  oat  flour  and  molasses  renders  it  readily 
assimilable  and  digestible.  The  manufacture  of  this  product 
consists  in  making  a  hot  mixture  of  oat  flour  which  is  allowed 
to  settle  and  undergo  a  partial  drying,  kneading  it  during  the 
interval.  The  final  product  has  the  aspect  of  a  fine  flour  and 
possesses  a  slightly  glue-like  texture.  An  interesting  fact 
pointed  out  is  that  the  flour-like  oat-molasses  combination  is 
certainly  very  much  more  acceptable  to  cattle  in  general  than 
any  known  peat  mixture  would  be.  The  combination  under 
consideration  contains  23  per  cent,  fatty  substance  and  protein, 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  claimed  that  it  is  a  superior  fodder  for 
horses  and  working  oxen. 

Molasses  has  not  the  same  nutritive  value  as  oats,  but  the 
desirable  proportion  of  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  sub- 
stances in  a  ration  in  which  these  relations  are  1.6,  can  be 
reached  by  the  addition  of  a  fodder  rich  in  these  substances, 
such  as  brewers'  grains,  for  example. 

Wheat  molasses      In  most  of  the  existing  combinations  peat  is  used  to  give  the 

combination,   molasses  compound  a  dry  appearance  and  thereby  to  facilitate 

its  handling.     Some  interesting  experiments  have  been  recently 

made  that  promise  very  favorable  results.     In  most  countries 


WHEAT  BRAN  MOLASSES  COMPARED  WITH  CORN  GERMS.     269 

wheat  is  sold  on  the  market  at  prices  depending  upon  its  quality 
and  the  modes  of  cleaning  it,  etc.  During  the  process  of  clean- 
ing the  inferior  wheat  is  separated  with  other  impurities,  and  is 
sold  separately;  and  while  its  market  price  is  much  lower  than 
the  high  grade  wheat,  it  actually  competes  with  wheat  and  has 
a  tendency  to  lower  the  price  of  the  superior  article.  If  these 
low-grade  wheats  were  combined  with  molasses  they  would  help 
the  farmer  in  many  ways.  The  price  of  good  wheat  would  rise 
and  the  inferior  wheat  would  be  advantageously  utilized  both 
for  horses  and  cows.  Experiments  show  that  3  Ibs.  of  the  in- 
ferior wheat  can  take  the  place  of  4.5  ibs.  of  oats  in  the  ration 
of  a  horse,  and  when  brought  down  to  a  money  basis  this  means 
an  economy  of  several  cents  per  diem.  The  new  molasses  com- 
bination with  the  flour  of  the  wheat  in  question  has  the  follow- 
ing composition:  Water  5.5,  nitrogenous  substances  11.8,  fatty 
substances  1.27,  sugar  30.05.  glucose  and  dextrin  11.53,  starch 
22.53,  cellulose  19.8,  and  mineral  substances  5.09.  These  per- 
centages speak  for  themselves  and  show  the  advantages  they 
would  offer  if  used  as  a  fodder. 

Certain  authorities  have  made  comparisons  between  the  action  Corn  germs  and 
of  corn  germs  and  molasses  and  that  of  corn  combined  with  molasses  c°m- 
colza  oil  meal  and  wheat  middlings  so  that  the  total  nutritive  * 
substances  were  the  same  for  both.  To  growing  sheep  there 
were  fed  7.5  kilos  of  this  germ-molasses  product,  and  6.3  kilos 
of  corn.  The  results  obtained  were  favorable  to  molasses. 
Schultz  obtained  with  milch  cows  the  same  results  as  could  be 
realized  with  forage  beets  and  oat  bran.  These  last  combina- 
tions are  most  excellent,  as  every  one  knows,  for  the  production 
of  milk,  and  may  be  replaced  by  the  corn-germ  molasses  pro- 
duct in  cases  where  beets  cannot  be  had.  Albert  fed  to  bulls  4 
kilos  per  1,000  kilos  live  weight.  This  was  ultimately  increased 
to  6  kilos.  The  results  obtained  were  in  every  way  satisfactory. 

Dyk  compares  wheat  bran  molasses  with  corn  germs,  1 J  kilos     Wheat  bran 
being  combined  with  f  k^lo  of  colza  oil  meal.     In  the  experi-  molasses  com- 
ments made  the  totals  of  these  two  forages  were  substituted  for    pared  Hith 
the  same  weight  of  bran-molasses;  in   other  cases,   gradually 
commencing  by  J,  -i-,  and  f ,  all  the  forages  were  finally  substi- 
tuted for  bran-molasses.     There  was  obtained  an  increase  of  83 
per  cent,  in  the  quantity  of  milk  per  diem. 


270      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

Bran  and         A  mixture  that  is  frequently  recommended  contains  50  parts 
molasses  com-  bran  and  50  parts  molasses.     The  molasses  is  heated  to  80-88°  C. 
bination.      before  adding  the  bran  and  the  residuum  is  rapidly  absorbed. 
Bran  may  be  used  in  any  and  all  rations. 

Professor  Maercker,  some  time  since,  undertook  some  special 
experiments  upon  twenty -four  steers  with  the  idea  of  determin- 
ing the  value  of  the  molasses  combinations.  The  animals  were 
divided  into  four  groups,  all  receiving  the  same  quantity  of 
Bran  compared  digestible  nutrients  per  1,000  kilos  live  weight,  viz.:  3  kilos 
with  peat.  Qf  djgegtible  protein  and  15  kilos  of  digestible  non-nitrogenous 
substances.  Two  groups  of  steers,  one  in  the  stable  and  the 
other  in  the  yard,  received  the  peat-molasses  rations;  the  two 
others  the  bran-molasses  ration.  The  conclusion  was  that  the 
bran-molasses  was  superior  to  the  peat-molasses;  consequently 
the  high-priced  peat  product  may  be  advantageous!}^  replaced 
by  the  bran  mixture.  However,  it  was  claimed  that  peat  had 
special  physiological  advantages,  which  the  leading  authorities 
have  never  been  able  to  account  for. 

Moss  molasses  Among  the  original  efforts  at  introducing  molasses  for  cattle 
combination,  feeding  is  the  attempt  at  combining  the  residuum  with  certain 
mosses  of  the  Sphagnum  variety.  The  important  advantage 
claimed  is  that  the  substance  in  question  has  the  special  absorb- 
ing powers  so  much  sought  after  when  cattle  feeding  is  the 
object  in  view.  This  moss  is  composed  of  nearly  pure  cellulose. 
It  may  be  taken  from  the  prairies  in  its  natural  state,  and  grows 
again  almost  immediately  after  a  crop  is  gathered.  Before  be- 
ing used  the  moisture  should  be  removed  by  means  of  an  ordi- 
nary hay  press,  and  the  cakes  thus  obtained  be  subsequently 
air  dried.  It  is  possible  to  dry  it  just  as  hay  is  dried.  It  is 
delivered  to  the  factory  in  this  desiccated  condition,  and  is  then 
chopped  up  into  small  particles  and  mixed  thoroughly,  by 
hand  or  mechanically,  with  6  or  8  times  its  weight  of  molasses. 
It  is  then  stored  in  a  dry  loft,  and  before  being  fed  to  cattle  is 
mixed  with  cereal  wraste,  chopped  strawr,  palm  oil  cake,  corn 
flour,  rice  flour,  or  other  substances  that  the  local  environment 
may  offer.  In  order  to  obtain  the  cake-like  product  one  pound 
of  moss  is  mixed  with  25  Ibs.  of  any  of  the  substances  just 
mentioned,  and  molasses  added.  Attention  may  be  called  to 


ABSORPTION    OF    THE    BY-FODDER    AND    MOLASSES.        271 

the  fact  that  in  most  of  the  peat  molasses  combinations,  if  the 
product  is  pressed  between  the  fingers,  the  molasses  at  once 
oozes  out  between  the  pores  of  the  peat,  while  on  the  other  hand 
the  moss-molasses  and  palm-oil  meal  compound  may  be  sub- 
mitted to  considerable  pressure  without  even  a  drop  of  molasses 
coming  to  the  surface.  Over  two  pounds  of  this  product  is 
pressed  into  a  cake  and  dried  at  a  temperature  not  above  100° 
C.  An  important  essential  in  this  instance  is  that  the  molasses 
and  moss  should  be  first  thoroughly  combined  and  then  the 
other  product  added;  if  the  order  is  reversed  the  compound 
would  consist  of  dried  moss  and  granules,  the  feeding  value  of 
which  would  be  very  doubtful. 

A  German  patent  for  preparing  molasses  fodder  makes  the  Boiling  water 
following  claim :  facilitating  the 

A  process  for  preparing  molasses  fodder,  characterized  by  the  absorPtlon  of 

fact  that  substances,  such  as  bran  or  oil  meal,  etc.,  when  sub- 

and  molasses. 
mitted  to  boiling  water,  change  their  texture  so  that  they  may 

become  saturated  with  molasses.  After  this  treatment,  there 
may  be  added  nutritive  substances,  such  as  crushed  cereals  in 
varied  forms. 

The  inventor  explains  that  hot  water  macerates  the  bran  so 
as  to  render  soluble  the  sticky  or  gummy  substance  with  which 
the  pores  are  impregnated.  The  molasses,  instead  of  remaining 
on  the  surface  of  the  substances,  penetrates  the  pores  and  forms 
an  intimate  fusion  with  them.  This  molasses  fodder,  recom- 
mended for  horses,  is  prepared  as  follows: 

Three  hundred  kilos  of  rye  bran  are  moistened  and  left  for  an 
hour  to  soften.  Upon  this  are  poured  from  500  to  600  liters  of 
water  at  100°  C.  This  is  covered  and  left  for  an  hour  so  that 
the  glue-like  substances  may  have  time  to  dissolve.  About  200 
kilos  of  wheat  bran  are  added,  followed  by  kneading  for  half  an 
hour  or  an  hour,  so  that  the  gummy  substance  from  the  wheat 
bran  may  also  be  dissolved.  There  follows  a  continued  stirring, 
and  then  about  30  kilos  of  chopped  straw  and  30  to  50  kilos  of 
ground  oil  cake  are  added,  and  the  product  is  subsequently 
energetically  kneaded;  then  about  250  kilos  molasses  are  added. 
If  it  is  desired  to  add  salt  or  stimulants  this  must  be  effected 
before  the  molasses  is  added,  these  solutions  being  dissolved  and 
distributed  throughout  the  pasty  product. 


272     FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

After  this,  cover  the  mass  for  an  hour  or  two,  to  allow  the 
fodder  combination  time  to  completely  absorb  the  molasses. 
Then  knead  energetically,  adding  by  degrees  150  kilos  of 
crushed  maize,  100  kilos  of  crushed  barley  and  100  kilos  of 
crushed  oats,  which  results  in  a  consistent  pasty  product.  The 
latter  is  now  left  for  2  or  3  hours  and  is  then  cut  into  pieces, 
which  are  run  through  rollers  to  be  made  into  cakes  10  to  15 
mm.  thick,  and  subsequently  dried.  The  mass  is  then  ready 
to  be  used  as  a  fodder. 

The  inventor  claims  that  these  ground  cakes,  prepared  with 
the  ingredients  and  in  the  proportions  indicated,  form  a  com- 
plete fodder  on  which  an  animal,  if  need  be,  could  be  exclus- 
ively fed.  As  the  fodder  already  contains  chopped  straw,  there 
is  no  necessity  for  additional  constituents.  It  is  important  to 
follow  the  operations  in  the  indicated  order,  and  it  is  also  essen- 
tial that  the  different  substances  be  thoroughly  mixed. 

Glucose  and  rice  The  Delattre  molasses  combination,  while  it  was  introduced 
flour  molasses  severai  years  since,  has  not  met  with  the  success  that  was 
hoped,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  has  many  very  valuable 
characteristics.  Up  to  the  time  that  it  was  introduced  the  main 
use  of  molasses  in  cattle  feeding  was  simply  for  sprinkling 
hay  and  forages,  but  the  residuum  was  never  considered  as 
an  actual  mainstay  in  feeding.  In  this  Delattre  method,  it  was 
claimed  that  molasses  was  the  mainstay,  the  basis  upon  which 
the  feeding  depended.  The  composition  consisted  of  100  parts 
glucose  and  50  parts  rice  flour  combined  with  molasses.  These 
combinations  undergo  certain  variations,  but  in  all  cases  the 
ingredients  introduced  are  such  as  to  keep  the  general  propor- 
tions of  the  constituents  about  the  same,  viz.:  Proteids  26.7 
percent.,  fatty  substances  5.40  per  cent.,  carbohydrates  21.16 
per  cent,  sugar  20.82  per  cent.,  water  12.45  per  cent.,  ash  and 
cellulose  13.44  per  cent. 

Feeds  sprinkled      Not  long  since  A.  Guttmann  addressed  a  German  agricultural 

with  molasses  meeting  on  molasses  feeding,  and  as  he  has  given  the  product  a 

der  ^ssure""  Practical  trial  during  a  period  of  ten  years  what  he  says  is  of  more 

than  usual  interest.     Five  hundred  to  600  working  oxen  and  300 

horses  are  used  on  his  farm.     For  several  years  past  5  kilos  of 

molasses  have  been  fed  per  diem  to  each  animal  of  550  to  600 


PEANUT   SHELL   MOLASSES   COMBINATION.  273 

kilos  live  weight,  no  distinction  being  made  between  stall-fed 
and  working  animals.  One  }*ear  645  steers  were  fattened  dur- 
ing a  period  of  90  days.  The  forage  was  finely  chopped  and 
then  sprinkled  with  molasses  to  be  subsequently  heated  under 
pressure  of  two  to  three  atmospheres.  The  steers  received  their 
rations  in  six  meals  per  diem,  the  fodder  being  sprinkled  with 
molasses  each  time,  and  after  an  interval  of  a  few  days  they 
declined  eating  until  the  molasses  was  added.  The  steers  kept 
in  an  excellent  condition  when  fed  with  straw,  cereal  middlings 
and  molasses.  The  ration  for  horses  was  1.5  kilos  to  2  kilos 
per  diem.  In  this  form  swine  received  one  kilo  to  1.5  of 
molasses  per  diem,  no  allowance  being  taken  of  their  live 
Weight. 

It  is  interesting  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  during  the  Peanut  shell 
first  experiments  at  Toury  of  horse  feeding  with  peat-molasses,  molasses  com- 
the  ration  contained  883  grams  of  digestible  albuminoids,  which  Wnatkm- 
meant  9.8  per  cent,  of  the  total  nutrients.  Experience  has 
shown  that  in  this  ration  498  grams  of  digestible  albuminoids 
are  sufficient  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  average  emer- 
gency. This  amount  of  protein  means  about  7  per  cent,  of  the 
total  nutritive  substances.  From  this  practical  experience  the 
astonishing  result  has  been  obtained,  that  the  protein  may  be 
diminished  385  grams,  or  40  per  cent,  without  in  any  way 
changing  the  practical  working  power  of  the  animal  fed.  From 
a  common-sense  standpoint,  it  is  evident  that  it  is  desirable  for 
the  horses  fed  to  receive  not  only  an  apparently  useful  element, 
such  as  sugar,  but  also  nitrogenous  substances  in  a  reasonable 
proportion,  which,  all  facts  considered,  would  represent  a  ration 
suited  to  the  farm-horse  in  general;  for  feeding  when  considered 
from  a  general  standpoint  always  means  the  consideration  of 
many  factors,  among  which  not  the  least  important  is  the  ne- 
glect or  care  of  the  animal's  keeper. 

M.  Lambert,  and  others,  claim  to  have  found  in  peanut 
shells  the  essentials  for  the  emergency.  The  composition  of 
these  is  as  follows:  Water,  7.28  per  cent.;  ash,  3.39  per  cent,; 
digestible  nitrogenous,  1.40  per  cent. ;  indigestible  nitrogenous, 
4.25  per  cent.;  amides,  2.57  per  cent.;  fatty  substances,  6.17 
percent.;  pentosane,  37.58  percent.;  cellulose,  4.75  per  cent. ; 
18 


274      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

unknown  substances,  9.86  percent.  This  analysis  shows  that 
the  peanut  wastes  are  poor  in  digestible  nitrogenous  substances, 
but  are,  on  the  other  hand,  rich  in  fatty  substances  and  pento- 
sane.  Even  taking  these  facts  into  consideration,  their  nutri- 
tive value  is  very  limited.  They,  however,  have  the  advantage 
of  being  readily  mixed  with  molasses,  and  in  more  ways  than 
one  they  appear  to  offer  certain  striking  practical  advantages 
over  peat.  When  combined  with  residuum  beet  molasses,  the 
product  has  the  following  composition:  Water,  12.61  per  cent.; 
ash,  7.02  per  cent.;  digestible  nitrogenous,  0.95  percent.;  in- 
digestible nitrogenous,  2.35  per  cent.;  amides,  7.50  per  cent.; 
fatty  substances,  1.70  percent.;  sugar,  22.60  percent.;  pento- 
sane,  10.4  percent;  cellulose,  24.83  percent;  unknown  sub- 
stances, 10.01  per  cent.  This  combination  calls  for  45  parts 
peanut  shells  and  55  parts  slightly  diluted  molasses,  or  51.4  per 
cent  molasses  at  44°.  The  product  costs  about  81  cents  per 
100  Ibs. 

Efforts  were  made  to  give  this  combination  a  practical  test. 
The  ration  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight  consisted  of  3.36  Ib.  crushed 
oats,  4.90  Ibs.  peanut  shell  molasses  combination,  6.00  Ibs. 
molasses.  The  horses  fed  flourished,  and  the  resulting  econ- 
omy meant  12  cents  per  diem  for  each  animal  fed — in  other 
words  25  per  cent.,  an  item  not  to  be  overlooked.  Unfor- 
tunately a  serious  practical  objection  followed — it  was  a  pasty 
compound,  not  relished  by  the  animals,  and  in  this  respect  did 
not  prove  practical.  Notwithstanding  this  fact,  there  appear  to 
be  many  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  this  forage, 
and  some  claim  that  it  is  superior  to  peat-molasses  combina- 
tions. From  a  farmer's  standpoint,  it  is  entirely  deficient  in 
protein;  while  from  a  manufacturer's  standpoint,  whose  main 
object  is  to  get  rid  of  his  residuum  molasses  under  the  best 
possible  conditions,  when  he  undertakes  to  manufacture  the 
fodder  himself,  peat  offers  special  advantages.  However,  fur- 
ther efforts  have  been  made  to  push  the  peanut  shell  combina- 
tion with  certain  oil  cakes,  such  as  the  oriental  sesame,  to 
which  must  be  added  oat  flour  or  crushed  wheat,  etc.  The 
sesame  and  peanut-molasses  combination  has  about  the  fol- 
lowing composition:  Water,  12.74  per  cent;  ash,  8.07  per 


HAY,  STRAW    AND    MOLASSES.  275 

cent. ;  digestible  nitrogenous,  9.34  per  cent. ;  indigestible  nitrog- 
enous, 2.0  percent.;  amides,  5.25  percent.;  fatty  substances, 
3.66  per  cent.;  sugar,  2.0  per  cent.;  pentosane,  6.54  per  cent.; 
cellulose,  15.03  per  cent.;  unknown  substances,  17.43  per  cent. 
It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  laxative  effects  of  the  molasses  are, 
in  an  important  measure,  done  away  with  by  the  contrary  in- 
fluence of  the  sesame.  It  is  claimed  that  the  nutritive  value 
of  the  combination  is  high,  as,  besides  its  equivalent  in  sugar, 
it  contains  a  considerable  proportion  of  fatty  constituents,  with 
other  hydrocarbons  readily  assimilated.  The  final  combination 
for  horses,  as  adopted  at  Toury,  consists  of  oat  flour,  peanut 
shells  and  molasses;  its  composition  is  as  follows:  Water,  16.69 
percent;  ash,  5.62  percent.;  digestible  nitrogenous,  3.20  per 
cent.;  indigestible  nitrogenous,  1.80  per  cent.;  amides,  3.19  per 
cent.;  sugar,  15.98  percent.;  starch,  13.20  per  cent.;  pentosane, 
9.32  per  cent.;  cellulose,  14.64  per  cent.;  unknown  substances, 
10.97  per  cent.  It  is  made  up  of  36  per  cent,  molasses  (44  per 
cent,  sugar),  35  per  cent,  crushed  oats,  and  27  per  cent,  peanut 
shells,  to  which  must  be  added  the  water  absorbed  during  eat- 
ing. The  nutritive  value  of  the  compound  is  self-evident.  It 
is  declared  by  M.  Lambert,  that  of  all  the  combinations  thus 
far  proposed,  none  offer  the  special  advantages  of  the  one  just 
mentioned. 

The  early  experiments  with  sheep  were  with  2  Ibs.  hay  per  Hay  straw  and; 
diem  and  subsequently  with  1  Ib.  of  hay  and  one-quarter  pound  molasses, 
molasses;  the  animal  remained  in  an  excellent  condition.  Later 
experiments  show  beyond  cavil  that  when  oxen  were  fed  with  a 
mixture  of  molasses  and  barley  straw,  or  a  mixture  of  straw  and 
oil  cake,  they  could  be  kept  in  a  good  healthy  condition  during 
the  winter.  The  maximum  limit  that  should  be  fed  per  diem 
was  found  to  be  8  Ibs.  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight.  It  was 
claimed  that  larger  amounts  could  not  be  assimilated  and  would 
therefore  be  wasted.  For  milch  cows,  the  molasses  was  simply 
added,  and  there  was  no  decrease  in  the  milk  production  as  is 
usually  the  case  when  changes  are  made  in  the  regimen.  Fed 
in  quantities  of  2.2  Ibs.  per  diem,  the  percentage  of  fatty  sub- 
stances in  the  milk  was  increased.  In  16  cows  under  experi- 
ment the  fat  percentage  rose  from  3.71  to  3.94,  and  in  another 


276  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

series  of  experiments  upon  60  cows  this  percentage  rose  from 
2.89  to  3.3  per  cent.,  the  quantity  of  milk  in  this  case  increas- 
ing by  10  quarts  per  diern.  In  another  series  of  the  early 
experiments  made  with  12  cows  in  Austria,  the  quantity  of 
molasses  fed  was  daily  increased  from  one  pound  to  2J  pounds. 
The  total  molasses  fed  was  about  100  Ibs.,  and  as  a  consequence 
the  volume  of  milk  increased  by  35  quarts  during  the  last  five 
days  of  the  experiment.  Mention  may  be  made  of  Ramm'? 
experiments,  in  which  the  standard  ration  of  the  cows  was  10 
Ibs.  hay,  3  Ibs.  chopped  straw,  50  Ibs.  forage  beets,  4  Ibs.  of 
flour  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight.  Here  again  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  milk  was  considerably  increased.  In  Vibrans'  ex- 
periments the  hay  and  chopped  straw  fed  were  sprinkled  with 
molasses  and  subsequently  thoroughly  combined;  then  sprinkled 
with  cotton-seed  flour  and  again  mixed.  The  results  obtained 
were  far  more  satisfactory  than  had  hitherto  been  realized.  The 
first  mentioned  experimenter  gave  to  sheep  36  Ibs.  per  1000  Ibs. 
live  weight.  With  pigs  only  4  Ibs.  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight 
could  be  advantageously  fed. 

Vibrans  has  been  able  to  make  an  excellent  fodder,  which  is 
very  compact  and  dry,  by  combining  3  per  cent,  residuum 
molasses  with  1  per  cent,  pulverized  straw.  The  straw  has  an 
important  advantage  over  peat,  as  in  itself  it  contains  important 
nourishing  properties.  The  use  of  beet  molesses  for  cattle-feed- 
ing is  not  new,  and  in  France,  as  early  as  1829,  M.  J.  J.  Ber- 
nard diluted  molasses  to  20°  B.  and  combined  it  with  chopped 
straw  and  fed  it  to  cattle,  horses  and  sheep. 

Molasses  and  Molasses  and  straw  combinations  were  at  one  time  very  much 
straw  combine-  jn  VOgue.  In  order  to  make  the  mixture  the  straw  had  to  be 
reduced  to  a  powder,  and  it  was  claimed  that  it  would  have  all 
the  advantages  and  none  of  the  disadvantages  of  the  peat- 
molasses  compounds.  The  apparatus  needed  is  most  simple 
and  may  be  managed  by  any  farmer. 

Seidel  mixes  diluted  molasses  with  chopped  straw  for  grow- 
ing steers,  which  have  been  fed  during  the  first  month  with  1^ 
kilos  of  molasses  per  head  and  per  diem;  then  2  kilos  per  head 
and  per  diem,  which  means  about  4  per  cent,  of  the  animal's 
weight,  and  he  thereby  obtained  excellent  results,  the  meat 


277 

being  irreproachable  in  every  respect.  Working  oxen  received 
between  November  and  May  1^  kilos  of  this  residuum  per  diem. 
However,  in  this  exceptional  case  the  results  obtained  with 
milch  cows  were  not  very  satisfactory. 

If  one  wishes  to  mix  the  residuum  with  chopped  straw  or 
other  forages,  it  is  recommended  that  the  product  be  always 
diluted,  and  that  atomizers  or  sprinklers  be  used  for  the  pur- 
pose, which  method  is  becoming  very  popular.  After  sprink- 
ling, the  mass  is  turned  over  and  thoroughly  mixed.  This 
combination  is  much  liked  by  cattle  in  general,  who  eat  the 
same  with  avidity. 

Of  late  Wrede  proposed  that  straw  be  submitted  to  a  regular 
crushing,  which  treatment  suitably  facilitates  its  power  of 
absorption  of  molasses.  The  coefficient  of  digestibility  of  straw 
would  be  increased  by  this  operation.  When  it  is  desired  that 
the  diluted  molasses  be  fed  at  once,  certain  precautions  should 
be  taken,  such  as  great  cleanliness  of  all  the  mixing  appliances, 
as  there  are  dangers  of  fermentation  which  might  subsequently 
affect  the  animals  seriously. 

Experience  shows  that  excellent  combinations  have  been  Potato  pulp  and 
made  by  adding  potato  pulp  to  molasses.  Maercker  submitted  molasses- 
this  pulp  to  the  action  of  lime  in  a  large  receptacle,  subse- 
quently washing  it  with  a  jet  of  water  and  pressing  in  a  special 
rolling  combination.  The  product  was  ultimately  dried  in 
special  troughs,  having  spiral  agitators.  In  the  proportion  of  1 
part  molasses  to  4  parts  potato  pulp,  the  molasses  is  imme- 
diately absorbed.  The  pulp  contains  only  30  per  cent,  of  dry 
substances,  and  is  very  much  improved  in  this  respect  by  the 
mixture  of  molasses  containing  85  per  cent,  dry  matter.  Fur- 
thermore, this  combination  may  be  dried  in  a  Buttner-Meyer 
furnace.  Among  other  interesting  experiments  may  be  men- 
tioned those  in  which  the  combination  consisted  of  equal  pro- 
portions of  wheat  flour  and  molasses. 

Seidel  fed  2  kilos  of  brewers'  grains,  combined  with  molasses,  Brewers'  grains 
in  the  proportion  of  one  part  molasses  and  one  part  grains,  to     and  molasscs- 
150  working  horses  and  10  saddle  horses,  and  he  declares  they 
were  in  far  better  condition  than  if  they  had  been  fed  on  oats 
alone.     Only  one  case  of  colic  was  noticed,  and  this  after  a  time 


278      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

disappeared.  Two  kilos  of  this  forage  took  the  place  of  2  kilos 
of  oats,  with  a  considerable  money  saving  to  all  interested. 
The  molasses-brewers'  grain  combination  also  produced  excel- 
lent effects  upon  young  cattle,  pigs,  etc. 

The  Poppelsdorf  (Germany)  experiments  demonstrate  beyond 
doubt  that  these  molasses  combinations  constitute  an  excellent 
fodder  for  milch  cows.  Combinations  made  up  of  powdered 
oil  meal  and  brewer's  grains  undergo  many  alterations.  The 
excessive  acidity  may  in  a  measure  be  overcome  by  adding  a 
certain  amount  of  lime,  leaving  20  per  cent,  moisture  for  the 
combination.  In  damp  climates  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
keep  the  product  in  question  for  any  length  of  time;  but  when 
it  is  to  be  consumed  at  once,  these  transformations  have  but  a 
secondary  importance. 

Palm  oil  and        In  the  Hollrung  experiments  the  forage  contained   50  per 
molasses  com-  cen^  residuum  molasses  and  50  per  cent,  so-called  palm-nut 


meal.  The  composition  of  the  product  was  as  follows:  Nitrog- 
enous substances,  11.4  per  cent.;  raw  fatty  substances,  3.18  per 
cent.;  non-nitrogenous  substances,  44.03  per  cent.;  cellulose, 
17.53  per  cent.;  ash,  6.3  per  cent.;  water,  17  per  cent.  The 
daily  ration  was  2.8  Ibs.  for  milch  cows,  4.5  Ibs.  for  oxen,  2.2 
Ibs.  for  horses,  and  J-  Ib.  for  sheep.  These  experiments  were  very 
successful.  It  was  shown  that  the  intestinal  canal  was  kept 
thoroughly  clean,  and  in  no  instance  was  there  recorded  a  case 
of  colic.  The  palm  meal  molasses  combination  has  now  be- 
come a  very  important  industry  in  Bohemia,  and  there  is  an 
establishment  that  makes  nothing  else.  Voigt's  experiments 
were  with  compounds  of  palm  and  coco  oil  meal  and  molasses, 
which  were  fed  to  16  omnibus  horses,  their  regular  rations 
being  19  Ibs.  corn,  9  Ibs.  hay,  9  Ibs.  straw,  2.2  Ibs.  chopped 
straw.  The  corn  in  the  ration  was  reduced  to  14.3  Ibs.,  and 
instead  of  the  4.7  Ibs.  there  was  used  an  oil  meal  molasses  mix- 
ture. The  results  were  so  satisfactory  that  the  preparation  was 
fed  to  850  horses. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  the  use  of  oil  meal  or  substances 
of  any  kind  that  have  undergone  the  slightest  organic  alteration 
is  a  great  mistake  when  a  healthy  ration  is  the  main  object  in 
view,  and  herein  is  the  difficulty  in  all  these  compounds  with 


PALM    OIL    AND    MOLASSES    COMBINATIONS. 


279 


green  molasses  and  the  superiority  of  liquid  molasses.  The  ob- 
jection to  oil  cake  and  molasses  was  that  its  use  could  not  be 
made  general;  under  certain  circumstances  its  mixing  with 
rations  was  impossible,  hence  bran  and  molasses  in  equal 
amounts  was  found  to  be  better  suited  for  general  feeding 
purposes. 

The  palm  oil  and  molasses  product  may  be  ground  to  flour, 
and  combined  with  80  to  100  parts  in  weight  of  heated  molasses, 
at  a  temperature  of  60°  to  100°  C.  This  is  mixed  upon  a 
cemented  platform,  using  wooden  shovels  for  the  purpose. 
The  hotter  the  molasses  the  more  complete  will  be  its  combina- 
tion with  every  particle  of  oil  cake,  and  the  ultimate  product 
will  be  so  much  improved.  At  first  this  combination  is  more 
or  less  fluid,  but  after  a  time  it  assumes  a  dry  aspect,  and  in 
reality  is  sufficiently  free  from  moisture  to  be  placed  in  sacks 
and  shipped  almost  the  same  as  flour.  A  man  may  prepare 
from  two  to  two  and  a  half  tons  of  this  forage  in  a  day. 

The  workshops  of  Selwig  and  Lange,  at  Brunswick,  have  de- 
livered to  the  sugar  factory  at  Schende  (Germany)  a  special 
and  well-arranged  mixer,  permitting  the  preparation  of  50  tons 
of  this  forage  per  diem.  Herewith  is  the  composition,  as  pre- 
pared at  two  factories: 

Two  ANALYSES  OF  PALM  OIL  AND  MOLASSES  COMBINATIONS, 


Constituents. 

Schwanberg 
sugar  factory. 

Alt  Jauer 
sugar  factory. 

Per  cent. 
17  7 

Per  cent. 
15  38 

Ash  

6  13 

5  96 

3  18 

4  27 

11  39 

12  81 

17  53 

12  15 

44  07 

49  4 

This  forage  produces  the  best  effects  upon  the  general  health 
of  animals  to  which  it  is  fed.  It  is  not  used  solely  for  cows 
and  sheep.  Since  1896,  an  omnibus  company,  organized  in 
Berlin,  has  fed  850  horses  with  this  forage.  The  horses  have 


280      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

been  in  excellent  health,  and  the  combination  has  resulted  in 
considerable  profit  to  the  company. 

On  certain  French  farms  where  diffusion  pulps  had  been 
combined  with  wheat  straw  and  2  kilos  of  oil  cake,  3  kilos  of 
molasses  were  substituted  for  the  latter.  The  steers  con- 
tinued to  fatten,  and  were  in  much  better  condition  than  in 
former  years.  In  the  case  of  working  oxen,  2  kilos  of  molasses 
were  used  instead  of  1.250  grams  oil  cake,  while  horses  received 
1.500  kilos  of  molasses  per  diem. 

Suitable  receptacles  for  raw  molasses  and  its  transportation 
form  difficult  problems  for  the  farmer,  whereas  molasses-forage 
combinations  may  be  shipped  in  bags.  The  first  efforts  in 
this  direction  were  those  made  with  palm-oil  cake,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  it  was  possible  to  obtain  a  combination  con- 
sisting of  60  per  cent,  molasses  and  40  per  cent,  oil  cake,  which 
was  mainly  used  for  milch  cow  feeding. 

Blood  molasses  There  is  another  forage  to  which  a  great  deal  of  attention  has 
combinations,  been  given  of  late,  and  that  is  a  mixture  of  animal  blood  with 
molasses.  For  many  years  molasses  has  been  mixed  with  fresh 
blood  to  form  a  forage  for  pigs  and  also  for  horses  and  lambs. 
Blood  has  a  very  considerable  nutritive  value,  which  has  been 
long  since  demonstrated  by  Sanborn.  Its  principal  function 
consists  in  forming  muscular  tissue,  and  this  is  made  evident 
by  examining  its  composition,  which  is,  according  to  Bunge, 
about  as  follows: 

Globules,  Serum, 

31.87  per  cent.         68.13  per  cent. 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Water 19.12  62.22 

Heine-globulin  and  albumin  .               12.36  4.99 

Unknown  organic  substances .                 0.24  0.38 

Ash 0.15  0.54 

According  to  Misl  and  Strohmer,  the  average  composition  for 
ten  analyses  of  blood-molasses  combinations  as  now  used  was: 
Water,  77.93  per  cent.;  protein,  20.88  per  cent.;  unknown 
organic  substances,  0.96  per  cent.;  ash,  0.82  per  cent. 


MOLASSES   ACTS   AS   ANTISEPTIC.  281 

When  one  reflects  upon    the   possibilities  of  this  molasses  Possibilities  of 
utilization,  appalling  facts  become  apparent.     In  the  ordinary  blood-molasses 
slaughter-houses  of  most  of  our  popular  centres  the  volume  or  comt)inations- 
quantity  of  blood  that  remains  is  something  stupendous — as, 
for  example,  in  Vienna,  where  it  reaches  6,000  tons  per  annum. 
If  we  should  combine  residuum  molasses  with  this  product,  we 
would  have  at  once  at  our  disposal  enough  forage  to  feed  the 
majority,  if  not  all,  of  the  live  stock  of  that  empire,  and  there 
would  be  very  little  call  for  other  feeding  stuffs. 

Molasses-blood  combinations  are  always  made  up  of  other  in-  Molasses  acts 
gredients,  such  as  bran,  oil  cake,  etc.  In  these  mixtures,  as  antiseptic, 
molasses,  according  to  Fredericksen  and  Clausen,  prevents  the 
putrefaction  of  the  blood,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  large  per- 
centage of  sugar.  The  activity  of  micro-organisms  in  this  com- 
bination is  thus  paralyzed.  Experience  appears  to  show  that 
it  is  a  mistake  to  add  more  than  10  per  cent,  blood  to  the 
molasses.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  order  to  obviate 
organic  changes  entirely  one  may  heat  the  forage  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  80°  to  100°  C.,  which  means  to  desiccate  the  product  so 
that  it  will  ultimately  contain  15  to  20  per  cent,  moisture. 
Without  doubt  this  has  an  excellent  effect,  as  it  obviates  the 
contamination  of  many  diseases,  such  as  tuberculosis.  The 
disinfecting  action  of  molasses  was  discovered  as  follows,  the 
present  arguments  being  the  outcome  of  the  observations  of 
Stein,  at  Copenhagen.  A  servant  accidentally  upset  a  certain 
amount  of  molasses  into  a  receptacle  full  of  blood.  In  the 
desire  to  make  amends  for  his  individual  shortcoming  he 
endeavored  to  procure  other  blood,  but  not  being  successful  he 
admitted  the  accident.  The  receptacle  which  had  previously 
contained  the  overturned  blood  wras  forgotten  and  put  aside, 
and  when  examined  later  it  was  noticed  that  the  blood  had 
been  completely  preserved  through  the  intervention  of  the 
molasses,  and  it  was  in  no  way  altered  from  its  primitive 
organic  condition. 

Fresenius  has  endeavored  for  a  long  time,  but  without  suc- 
cess, notwithstanding  even  the  action  of  micro-organisms,  to 
bring  about  a  putrefaction  of  a  molasses-blood  combination,  by 
keeping  it  in  an  oven,  at  a  temperature  of  37°  C.,  during  a 
long  period. 


FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

Method  of  pre-      Haefke    gives    the    following    description   of    Frederik sen's 
paring  blood-    method  for  preparing  a  blood  molasses  feed.     This  mode  has 

molasses  comb!-  hitherto  been  considered  a  secret.     The  blood  is  collected  in  a 
ndtions 

receptacle,  and  in  order  to  prevent  its  coagulating  a  small  tur- 
bine is  placed  in  the  midst  of  the  product  to  keep  it  in  constant 
motion  and  to  break  up  any  particles  that  it  may  contain. 

It  is  then  run  into  a  large  mixing  tank  with  an  agitator 
having  a  vertical  shaft  with  horizontal  arms.  There  is  added 
to  the  blood  25  per  cent,  of  molasses.  Subsequent  to  the  mix- 
ing a  pump  forces  the  mixture  to  a  last  compounding  appliance, 
where  the  porous  substance  is  added,  such  as  bran,  etc.  This 
compounding  apparatus  consists  mainly  of  two  rollers  moving 
in  opposite  directions,  so  that  the  paste  shall  be  thoroughly 
mixed.  Finally  the  forage  is  dried  in  what  is  known  as  the 
Otto  furnace,  used  for  the  drying  of  distillers'  grains.  This 
dryer  consists  of  two  compartments  or  troughs,  one  over  the 
other,  heated  by  steam,  and  in  each  of  which  there  is  an  agitator 
consisting  of  coils  through  which  expanded  steam  circulates. 
This  heating  brings  about  a  sterilization  of  the  combination. 
From  the  first  trough  the  forage  falls  into  the  second,  through 
which  it  passes,  and  ultimately  leaves  the  apparatus  entirely 
dried. 

The  composition  of  the  blood-molasses  combination  such  as  is 
made  at  Copenhagen,  Berlin,  Hamburg,  Hanover,  Milan,  etc., 
is  as  follows: 

Per  cent. 

Water 9.40 

Amides 3.56 

Albumin  (nitrogen  X  6.25)  = 24.19 l 

Fatty  substances  3. 15 

Ash 7.6 

Cellulose 8.6 

Non-nitrogenous  elements 43.5 

Varied  absorb-       Besides  bran  the  blood  may  be  absorbed  by  brewers'  grains, 

ents  may  be    dried  cossettes,   etc.,   and  subsequently  mixed  in   the  desired 

used.       proportions  with  molasses.     Under  these  conditions  it  is  readily 

1  Ninety-six  per  cent,  is  digestible. 


ELIMINATION    OF    FIBKIN. 


283 


handled  and  possesses  all  the  qualities  looked  for  in  molasses 
mixtures.  The  composition  of  these  various  combinations  is 
as  follows: 

ANALYSES  OF  THREE  BLOOD-MOLASSES  COMBINATIONS. 


Constituents. 

Blood  -f 
wheat  bran-j- 
mol  asses. 

Bran  4-  blood  -h 
brewers'  grains 
4-  molasses. 

Blood-f  dried 

cossettes-f- 
mol  asses. 

Per  cent. 
7  33 

Per  cent. 
8  51 

Per  cent. 
8.53 

24  62 

25  00 

29.55 

3  32 

2  88 

3  51 

1  04 

0  14 

0.22 

7  50 

I9  90 

16  69 

Non-nitrogenous  not  specified.  •  • 

42.20 
7  02 

35.20 

9  77 

30.69 
6  24 

\sh  

6  10 

5  35 

4  44 

Sand  

0  87 

0  25 

0  13 

In  the  four  analyses  given  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  there  is  a 
considerable  percentage  of  albuminoids  and  sugar,  all  of  which 
are  easily  digested.  Notwithstanding  the  sterilization  of  the 
compound,  the  digestibility  of  the  albumen  of  the  blood  remains 
higher  than  the  digestibility  of  vegetable  albumen.  Maercker 
found  that  95.9  per  cent,  of  this  albumen  could  be  assimilated. 

Jolles  eliminated  the  fibrin  of  the  blood  and  then  submitted 
it  to  a  centrifugal  action  in  order  to  separate  the  serum.  The 
globule-like  paste  thus  obtained  is  four  times  richer  in  nitro- 
genous substances  than  was  the  fresh  blood,  and  has  greater 
keeping  qualities,  which  may  be  still  further  increased  by  add- 
ing 10  per  cent,  of  molasses.  It  has  been  suggested  that  this 
compound  shall  be  absorbed  by  suitable  porous  feeds,  and  then 
it  need  not  be  submitted  to  a  desiccation  in  order  to  give  it 
excellent  keeping  qualities.  It  consists  of  concentrated  forage 
of  great  nutritive  value  and  possessing  exceptional  digestibility, 
which  is  admirably  suited  for  cavalry  purposes,  Already  24 
regiments  of  Germany  have  adopted  it.  Its  composition  varies 
with  the  manner  in  which  it  is  prepared.  Herewith  are  two 
analyses  of  interest: 


Eliminatien 
of  fibrin. 


284 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


Two  ANALYSES  OF  BLOOD-MOLASSES  COMBINATIONS  (FIBRIN  ELIMINATED). 


Water  

Per  cent. 
9  93 

Per  cent. 

7  40 

32  69 

44  66 

1  85 

1  68 

0  68 

0  82 

5  70 

7  90 

Cellulose  

9  00 

6  67 

Ash  

3  82 

5  '•>! 

Sand  

0  11 

0  10 

36  22 

25  56 

Total  

100  00 

100  00 

Feeding  horses       The  health  of  horses  under  this  feeding  appears  to  be  excel- 

with  blood     lent  and  the  digestive  energy  is  in  no  way  impaired.     Certain 

molasses,     authorities  declare  that  for  horses  the  product  should  be  given 

gradually,  in  order  that  the  animals  may  become  accustomed  to 

it  little  by  little. 

It  is  impossible  to  feed  protein  to  excess  and  decrease  the 
fatty  substances.  It  is,  furthermore,  impossible  to  substitute 
more  than  one-half  of  the  oats  ration  by  this  feed.  In  many 
cases  2  kilos  are  given  per  diem,  and  the  oats  ration  is  reduced 
from  6  kilos  to  3  kilos.  By  this  arrangement  good  results  are 
obtained,  and  after  a  year's  feeding  the  health  of  the  animals  is 
all  that  can  be  desired.  A  saving  in  money  always  follows 
its  use.  Some  authorities  declare  that  the  milk  production  is 
increased  5  per  cent,  per  diem.  Experience  seems  to  show  that 
it  is  possible  in  the  case  of  milch  cows  to  substitute  for  certain 
oil  meals  this  molasses-blood  forage  combination. 

Feeding  cows.  Lienthal  has  obtained  very  favorable  results  in  feeding  cows. 
He  estimates  that  the  profits  from  this  feeding  may  be  put 
down  at  40  pfennigs  [10  cents]  per  head  and  per  diem.  The 
results  obtained  with  pigs  were  less  satisfactory. 

Feeding  pigs.  This,  according  to  Maercker,  seems  paradoxical,  as  this  forage 
would  appear  to  be  easily  assimilated  and  adapted  to  the  in- 
testinal digestion  of  pigs. 

These  results  are  absolutely  in  contradiction  with  those  ob- 
tained in  America  with  blood-feed  combinations,  and  Maercker 
believes  it  is  mainly  to  the  absorbing  material  used  that  we  must 


MONEY   VALUE.  285 

look  for  the  difficulty  that  has  rendered  it  objectionable  for  this 
special  purpose.  On  the  other  hand  instances  may  be  given  in 
Austria  of  feeding  over  2,000  pigs  for  a  year  with  blood- 
molasses,  and  an  enormous  number  of  their  young  were 
nourished  during  this  interval. 

Results  published  relating  to  blood-molasses  combination  all 
show  that  excellent  effects  may  be  expected  from  its  use.     It 
may   safely    be  said  that  chickens,    geese,    ducks,    oxen,   etc. ,     Feeding  to 
will  relish  it.     In  the  case  of  steers  the  quality  of  the  meat  is     animals  in 
materially  improved. 

Ramm  and  Mintrop  have  fed  6  to  8  kilos  of  this  product  per 
diem  without  the  slightest  complications.  The  general  secre- 
tions were  favorable,  showing  that  the  assimilation  in  every  re- 
spect had  been  satisfactory. 

There  are  many  German  authorities  to  show  that  these  com-     Feeding  to 
binations  have  given   excellent  results  in   cases   where  certain       horses, 
muscular  force  is  needed,   such    as    for   horses;  and  in    most 
instances  there  have  been  considerable  money  savings,  owing 
to  the  substitution  of  this  product  for  oats  and  corn. 

Without  doubt  this  combination  has  a  future,  and  some  fac-  Extension  given 
tories  that  are  actually  in  existence  in  Continental  Europe  which  to  blood-molasses 
utilize  this  beet-sugar  molasses  in  combination  with  blood  can- 
not meet  the  demand  for  the  product.     The  cost  of  this  com- 
bination  cannot  be  determined  with  great   accuracy,   for  the 
simple  reason  that  it  depends  upon  so  many  factors.     Under  all 
circumstances  one  should  consider  the  market  value  of  the  con- 
centrates used  and  make  allowances  for  the  facility  of  obtaining 
it  in  the  quantities  needed. 

When  molasses  is  to  be  used  the  fact  must  not  be  overlooked 
that  allowance  must  be  made  for  its  money  cost.  In  order  to  Money  value, 
establish  the  price  that  one  can  reasonably  pay  for  a  forage- 
molasses  combination,  one  allows  for  the  sugar  percentage  upon 
the  accepted  basis  of  50  per  cent,  of  sugar  in  the  residuum. 
The  price  of  the  mixture  may  be  then  calculated  without 
trouble.  The  ration  should  contain  sufficient  fatty  and  albu- 
minoid substances  in  order  to  make  up  for  what  is  lacking  in 
the  molasses,  for  in  this  there  will  always  be  found  the  requisite 
non-nitrogenous  substances. 


286  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

General  rations.      The  quantity  of  the  ration  that  may  be  fed  without  danger 
to  different  animals  is  as  follows  : 

Growing  steers  ....   4  to  6  kilos  per  1000  kilos  live  weight. 

Working  oxen 2  to  3  kilos  per  1000  kilos  live  weight. 

Milch  cows 1  to  1 J  kilos  to  animals  of  an  average  weight. 

Growing  pigs £  kilo  to  animals  of  an  average  weight. 

Growing  sheep    - ...   200  grams  to  animals  of  an  average  weight. 

Superior  sheep 100  grams  to  animals  of  an  average  weight. 

Horses 1  kilo  to  animals  of  an  average  weight. 

These  figures  cannot  be  taken  as  absolute,  as  they  vary  with 
the  characteristics  of  the  animal  being  fed,  and  a  certain  care  is 
always  required  to  accustom  the  animals  to  it. 

Experience  shows  that  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  feed- 
ing one-fourth  of  the  ultimate  ration  per  diem,  and  increasing 
the  amount  week  by  week.  Under  these  circumstances  all  the 
objectionable  features  of  this  forage  are  overcome. 

Preparing  the       The  ideal  utilization  of  this  molasses-blood  combination  would 
blood-molasses  j^  for  ^e  farmer  to  compound  his  own  mixtures  as  the  occa- 

foddpr  on  thp 

,  sion  might  demand,  using  a  special  machine  not  costing  much, 

which  could  be  carried  from  place  to  place  as  required. 

The  Shraeder  apparatus  in  a  measure  combines  these  requi- 
sites. The  mixture  is  heated,  either  by  steam  circulating 
directly  beneath  the  dryer,  or  preferably  directly  over  the  fire, 
taking  the  precaution  to  have  a  double  bottom  in  which  hot 
water  circulates.  The  blood,  forage,  and  molasses,  are  fed  to 
the  apparatus  by  a  rotating  distributor  whose  working  is 
regular,  and  which  may  be  arranged  so  as  to  meet  any 
demand.  The  molasses  and  the  feed  are  then  mixed  in  a 
cylinder,  in  which  there  are  special  agitators. 

By  the  use  of  an  apparatus  of  this  kind  one  can  overcome  in 
a  measure  the  losses  during  keeping  and  thus  economize  an 
amount  of  money  that  will  more  than  compensate  for  the  cost 
of  the  machine  and  do  away  with  the  profits  and  demands  of 
the  third  party. 

Difficulties  in       The  keeping  of  this  special  product  has  offered  some  diffi- 

keeping.      culty,  as  the  sugar  percentage  of  most  of  these  compounds  is 

such  as  to  cause  rapid  alteration  owing  to  fermentation.     The 


VAURY    WHEAT    FLOUR    MOLASSES    COMBINATION.        287 

bacteria  formed  exert  their  influence,  causing  diarrhoea  among 
the  animals.  It  has  already  been  noticed  in  Germany  that 
these  transformations  of  the  blood -molasses  may  be  so  intensive 
that  the  mass  becomes  heated,  and  spontaneous  combustion 
follows. 

Experience  shows  that  it  is  desirable  to  take  certain  pre- 
cautionary measures  in  order  to  overcome  this  difficulty. 
Under  all  circumstances  the  product  should  never  be  placed  in 
bags  before  it  is  completely  dry.  Furthermore,  it  should  never 
be  kept  in  any  warehouse  where  wood  is  stored.  The  store- 
house should  be  built  entirely  of  stone,  and  the  product  itself 
should  not  be  piled  up  too  high. 

The  Vaury  preparation  having  been  so  generally  accepted  in  Vaury  wheat 
France,  it  is  interesting  to  follow  up  the  combination  in  some  flour  molasses 
detail.  The  inventor  says  that  his  effort  was  to  combine  a  combination- 
product  that  could  be  carried  without  difficulty  and  would  not 
possess  any  of  the  objectionable  features  of  the  molasses-peat 
combination;  for  why  introduce  into  the  stomach  a  mass  of  inert 
substances  that  are  not  assimilated  ?  Animals  under  this  regime 
are  obliged  to  waste  their  powers  in  masticating  a  substance 
that  is  worthless,  so  far  as  their  general  health  is  concerned. 
Whatever  may  be  the  worth  of  the  arguments  against  peat 
combinations,  they  continue  to  be  in  vogue.  The  object  Vaury 
had  in  view  was  to  use  other  constituents,  offering  all  the 
advantages  and  none  of  the  disadvantages  of  the  previous  com- 
binations. Wheat  flour  of  a  superior  quality  was  the  basis 
adopted.  The  thorough  mixing  w-as  one  of  the  essentials  for 
success,  and  this  was  followed  by  a  limited  fermentation  and 
baking,  the  result  being  bread,  in  the  general  acceptance  of  the 
expression,  in  which  all  the  ingredients  are  assimilated.  There 
are  used  100  parts  of  wheat  flour  and  about  70  parts  molasses. 
This  is  mixed  and  kneaded  so  as  to  form  a  paste,  as  is 
done  in  bread-making.  To  this  paste  or  dough  should  be 
added  a  suitable  ferment.  It  is  run  through  special  mechanical 
appliances  in  which  the  thickness,  etc. ,  of  a  standard  dimension 
are  obtained.  These  cakes  are  baked  in  an  oven  and  subse- 
quently broken  into  pieces.  The  bread-molasses  thus  obtained 
may  be  fed  in  a  dry  condition  to  horses,  or  in  a  semi-moist 


288  FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

state  to  animals  in  general.  Experiments  in  general  thus  far 
made  appear  to  show  that  this  combination  is  entirely  digest- 
ible. It  is  claimed  that  there  are  no  dangers  of  colics  through 
its  use,  that  the  desired  fattening  results  are  realized,  etc.  It  is 
said  that  the  Vaury  bread-molasses  combination  has  the  follow- 
ing composition:  Nitrogenous  substances,  10  to  12  per  cent.; 
hydrocarbons,  50  to  60  per  cent.,  of  which  25  to  50  per  cent,  are 
saccharine  substances,  12  to  15  per  cent,  moisture,  and  10  to  12 
percent,  mineral  substances.  All  facts  considered,  the  molasses 
combination,  just  described,  deserves  more  than  a  passing  con- 
sideration. 

Solid  molasses  is  made  by  combining  the  residuum  with  saw- 
dust; it  may  be  readily  carried  in  that  condition.  The  mixing 
consists  in  using  100  parts  molasses  for  15  to  20  parts  sawdust, 
and  evaporating  during  constant  agitation,  lasting  for  over  an 
hour.  The  final  product  is  brown  in  appearance,  not  sticky, 
and  has  the  characteristic  odor  of  molasses.  The  sweet  water 
of  exosmosis  may  be  treated  in  the  same  manner.  The  saw- 
dust does  not  prevent  fermentation,  nor  is  it  in  the  way  when 
the  residuum  is  to  be  incinerated.  The  apparatus  used  for  this 
purpose  may  be  employed  for  the  preparation  of  molasses 
fodders,  etc. 

Requisite  keeping      Molasses,  as  it  leaves  the  beet-sugar  factory,  seldom  contains 
qualities  of    more  than  22  per  cent,  water  and  may  be  kept  for  a  consider- 
molasses.     ^blz  period;  but  when  this  percentage  reaches  even  25,  altera- 
tions  are   to   be   dreaded.     In   the   preparations   of    molasses 
fodders,    it    is    always   desirable   to   concentrate   as   much   as 
possible  and  not  to  dilute  the  product. 

According  to  observations  at  the  German  agricultural  stations, 
those  forages  belonging  to  the  same  class  as  molasses  should  not 
contain  more  than  20  per  cent,  water,  and  not  over  25  per  cent, 
for  peat  molasses  combination,  as  the  higher  this  moisture  per- 
centage is,  the  greater  are  the  chances  of  decomposition  during 
its  keeping. 

These  fermentations  are  always  accompanied  by  considerable 
sugar  losses.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  after  a  year's  keeping 
almost  all  the  sugar  has  disappeared,  which  is  often  the  cause 
of  considerable  litigation  between  the  seller  and  the  purchaser, 


DISHONEST   DEALINGS   IN   MOLASSES.  289 

the  latter  never  finding  an  equivalent  for  his  money;  but  manu- 
facturers of  this  molasses  forage  combination  declare  that  the 
disappearance  of  the  sugar  does  not  necessarily  signify  that  the 
forage  has  lost  its  nutritive  value. 

The  money  value  of  the  nitrogenous  substances  of  molasses  is 
also  a  factor  which  has  a  pecuniary  import  not  yet  settled  in 
practice.  Furthermore,  it  is  important  to  add  that  the  analyses 
of  molasses  forages  are  very  difficult  operations. 

According  to  Gormermann,  it  is  mainly  in  oil  cake  feeds  that 
rapid  alterations  are  to  be  found.  The  acids  contained  in  differ- 
ent substances  with  which  the  molasses  is  mixed  favor  all  sorts 
of  fermentations.  The  acid  in  distillers'  and  brewers'  slops  is 
lactic  acid.  In  oil  cake  it  is  oleic  acid,  while  in  peat  there  is  a 
long  series  of  acids,  the  principal  one  of  which  is  humic  acid. 

As  regards  brewers'  slops,  it  would  be  useless  to  attempt  to 
neutralize  it  in  order  to  increase  its  keeping  qualities,  as  it  is 
precisely  this  acidity  that  is  so  much  relished  by  the  animals  to 
which  it  is  fed.  Oil  cake  has  the  advantage  that  the  oleic  acid 
which  always  brings  about  digestive  complications  is  neutralized 
by  the  addition  of  lime  and  molasses.  It  must  be  noted  that 
this  addition  of  lime  does  not  entirely  do  away  with  the  action 
of  certain  micro-organisms  of  oil  cake  upon  the  fatty  sub- 
stances which  they  contain.  The  existing  acids  are  neutralized, 
but  if  one  wishes  to  do  away  entirely  with  these  micro-organic 
transformations  it  is  essential  not  to  attempt  the  keeping" of  this 
special  forage. 

Molasses  forages  in  Europe  have  a  disadvantage  of  being  ex-  Dishonest  <fea|. 
pensive,  on  account  of  the  industry,  in  many  cases,  being  in  the  ings  in  molasses, 
hands  of  a  very  few.  who  thus  make  their  own  prices.  In 
order  to  avoid  the  frauds  committed  by  the  middle-man,  it  is 
found  preferable  for  the  purchaser,  who  is  the  user,  to  deal 
directly  with  the  manufacturer,  whereby  one  is  more  sure  of 
what  is  being  bought.  The  appearance  of  this  fodder,  or  even 
its  odor,  does  not  enable  one  to  distinguish  within  what  limits 
organic  transformations  have  taken  place,  and  if  one  is  depend- 
ent on  the  dealer  it  is  recommended  to  have  the  product 
properly  analyzed  by  a  competent  chemist.  Both  analytical 
and  microscopical  analyses  should  be  made.  Unfortunately 
19 


290  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

the  existing  fraud  is  very  general.  For  example  the  agri- 
cultural station  of  Halle  (Germany)  found  one-third  of  the 
samples  examined  for  a  period  of  one  year  misleading,  and  over 
8  per  cent,  absolutely  fraudulent. 

Keeping  Qualities      Peat-molasses  mixtures  have  considerable  keeping  qualities, 
of  pest  molasses,  as  peat  in  itself  does  not  favor  the  development  of  micro-organ- 
isms.    Experience  appears  to  show  that  if  these  fodders  are 
kept  in  some  warm  place,  they  will  lose  50  per  cent,  of  their 
moisture. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  losses  during  the  keeping  of  peat- 
molasses  combinations,  as  asserted  by  some,  are  the  outcome  of 
faulty  observations,  as  this  forage  contains  in  reality  very 
little  peat,  and  furthermore  the  slight  acidity  of  the  product 
should  be  neutralized  by  the  normal  alkalinity  of  the  molasses. 
The  objection  found  to  this  is  that  the  molasses,  which  is 
alkaline,  should  become  spontaneously  acid  owing  to  the  action 
of  micro-organisms. 

Experience  shows  that  the  general  molasses  combinations 
have  not  the  keeping  powers  they  should  have,  and  after  less 
than  a  year's  storage  the  sugar  loss  is  over  40  per  cent.,  not  in- 
cluding the  invert  sugar  formed.  In  Germany  other  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  this  loss  means  60  per  cent,  for  the  pro- 
tein and  50  per  cent,  for  the  sugar.  The  leading  authorities 
admit  that  these  losses  may  be  attributed  to  the  combined 
action  of  moisture  and  micro-organisms,  hence  the  reason  why 
such  products  should  undergo  a  drying  process  before  being 
placed  in  bags. 

Keeping  molasses      Molasses  may  be  kept  on  the  farm  in  a  very  simple  way. 

combinations  in  Formerly  cemented  silos  were  used,  but  now  holes  are  dug  in  a 

general,      close  clay  soil  and  the  molasses  poured  in.    The  bottom  is  clay, 

and  against  the  sides  are  placed  boards  so  as  to  prevent  the  dirt 

from  falling  into  the  mass.     The  objection  to  cemented  silos  is 

that  the  residuum  soon  acts  on  the  cement.     Mr.  Guttmann 

employs   molasses    mainly  to    force    the  consumption   of    the 

general  wastes  of  the  farm,  and  uses  very  little  oil  meal. 

Molasses  Forage  Made  at  the  Factory. 

Attention  is  called  to  cakes  of  molasses  made  at  the  Attigny 


MOLASSES    FORAGE    MADE    AT    THE    FACTORY.  291 

sugar  factory,  France.  The  cakes  in  question  have  about  the 
following  dimensions:  9  inches  in  length,  4  inches  in  width, 
and  two  inches  thick,  and  weighed  650  to  700  grams  (an  aver- 
age of  about  1J  Ibs. ).  They  are  obtained  by  mixing  50  Ibs. 
molasses  (45  per  cent,  sugar),  with  25  Ibs.  flour  and  25  Ibs. 
chopped  straw.  The  mass  is  submitted  to  a  thorough  mixing 
and  kneading  and  is  then  compressed  in  regular  shapes,  in 
very  much  the  same  apparatus  as  is  used  for  bricks,  and  the 
cakes  obtained  are  then  baked.  The  temperature  of  the  oven 
should  not  be  more  than  130  to  135°  C.  (266  to  275°  F.);  as 
otherwise  there  would  be  danger  of  carbonization.  The  bak- 
ing lasts  1J  hours,  during  which  period  about  10  per  cent,  of 
the  moisture  is  eliminated  ;  100  Ibs.  of  the  product  will  give 
90  Ibs.  of  this  brick-shaped  food.  The  cakes  should  be  kept  in 
some  dry  place.  In  practice  it  has  been  found  that  there  are 
many  advantages  in  having  the  forage  in  cakes  of  a  known  size 
and  composition,  and  when  the  conditions  of  feeding  special 
live  stock  are  determined,  it  is  sufficient  to  give  to  the  feeder 
full  instructions  as  to  the  weight  of  the  product  to  be  used  for 
each  ration.  As  the  straw  used  comes  from  the  farm  connected 
with  the  factory,  this  means  an  economy  in  the  combination. 
The  appliances  necessary  for  the  manufacture  of  the  molasses 
fodder  under  consideration  are  most  simple.  The  first  is  a 
mechanical  kneading  device  for  mixing  the  flour,  etc.  It  is 
emptied  by  simply  tipping  the  mixer  forward  wThen  the  opera- 
tion is  finished.  To  this  is  a  vertical  mixer  not  unlike  the 
machine  used  for  residuum  beet  cossette  pressing;  it  has  a 
vertical  shaft  with  projecting  axis  arranged  as  a  spiral.  In  the 
cake-making  apparatus  two  bricks  are  made  at  the  same  time, 
and  the  movable  oven  is  about  six  feet  in  length.  The  arrange- 
ment at  the  factory  in  question  is  only  temporary.  Its  prac- 
tical working  is  as  follows:  Into  the  mechanical  kneader  are 
introduced  50  Ibs.  molasses  and  25  Ibs.  of  flour;  after  twenty 
minutes'  mixing  and  kneading  the  mass  is  in  a  homogeneous 
condition  and  is  emptied  over  25  Ibs.  of  chopped  straw  at  the 
bottom  of  a  square-shaped  box  placed  in  the  ground,  its  dimen- 
sions depending  upon  the  volume  of  the  product  used.  The 
first  mixing  of  the  molasses  compound  and  straw  is  done  in  the 


292  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

receptacle  in  question  with  a  shovel  or  pitchfork,  and  the  com- 
bination is  then  thrown  into  the  vertical  mixer,  from  which  it 
enters  the  compressor,  and  is  then  cooked  in  the  oven.  In 
cases  where  this  molasses  fodder  is  to  be  consumed  at  once  it  is 
not  compressed,  but  is  simply  emptied  into  small  wagons  run- 
ning on  narrow-gauge  tracks  to  the  stable.  At  the  factory 
under  consideration,  about  4J  Ibs.  of  the  product  are  fed  to 
either  horses  or  oxen.  The  combination  in  question  contains 
about  20  per  cent,  moisture,  and  is  consequently  dryer  than  the 
original  molasses.  Upon  general  principles  one  might  conclude 
that  the  removal  of  additional  molasses  was  unnecessary;  but 
this  idea  is  a  mistake,  for  the  moisture  contained  in  the  products 
added  might  be  the  cause  of  fermentation  unless  the  drying 
were  continued;  and  furthermore,  both  the  straw  and  the  flour 
bring  with  them  certain  micro-organisms  which  sooner  or  later 
exert  their  destructive  influence. 

Molasses  combi-  The  question  of  the  possibility  of  manufacturing  the  molasses 
combinations  upon  the  farm  has  led  to  a  series  of  very  elaborate 
investigations  in  the  laboratory  of  the  sugar  manufacturers'  syn- 
dicate of  France.  The  starting  point  was  the  Vaury  molasses 
cakes  containing  50  per  cent,  molasses  and  having  the  following 
composition :  25  to  28  per  cent,  saccharine  substances,  45  to  48 
per  cent,  hydrocarbons,  9  to  12  per  cent,  nitrogenous  substances 
and  1  per  cent,  fatty  substances.  Just  what  ingredients  are 
used  is  unknown.  Its  cost,  $1.36  per  100  Ibs.,  is  and  has  been 
one  of  the  objections  to  its  general  use.  The  first  object  in  view 
is  to  utilize  any  waste  material  that  may  be  found  in  the  barn 
and  to  select  a  substance  that  may  be  used  to  combine  with 
molasses,  so  as  to  form  a  solid,  nearly  dry  mass  which  may  be 
readily  carried  from  place  to  place  as  it  may  be  called  for.  In 
the  first  series  of  experiments,  the  drying  of  the  combinations 
was  done  in  an  oven.  First  combination :  100  parts  wheat  flour, 
2  parts  yeast  and  50  parts  water,  well  mixed  with  100  parts  mo- 
lasses at  38°  to  39°  Be.  and  80  parts  of  pulverized  oil  cake.  It 
is  baked  in  an  oven  and  becomes  nearly  solid.  Second  combina- 
tion: 30  parts  wheat  flour  with  the  requisite  water  and  yeast, 
100  molasses,  80  pulverized  oil  cake.  The  resulting  cake  can 
be  readily  carried.  Third  experiment:  25  wheat  flour  with  the 


SIMPLE    APPLIANCES    FOR    MIXING.  293 

requisite  water  and  yeast  ferment,  100  molasses,  100  to  110  pul- 
verized oil  cake.  It  was  concluded  that  the  percentage  of  wheat 
flour  was  not  sufficient.  Fourth  experiment:  30  wheat  flour 
with  water  and  the  requisite  ferment,  combined  with  100  molas- 
ses, etc.  In  the  other  series  of  experiments,  the  preparations 
were  heated  in  a  furnace  up  to  the  temperature  of  95°  to  100°. 
Corn  flour  was  found  preferable  to  wheat  flour  the  combination 
used  being  100  corn  flour,  100  molasses  and  the  remainder  bran. 
After  a  thorough  mixing,  the  ration  was  cooked  in  a  furnace  for 
from  9  to  10  hours.  It  was  further  considered,  in  a  series  of 
practical  experiments,  what  forage  was  the  most  suitable  to  be, 
combined  with  the  molasses,  and  w~hat  was  the  most  desirable 
duration  of  the  period  of  heating  or  cooking  in  the  furnace. 

In  Germany,  special  molasses  mixing  appliances  are  sold  for  Simple  appli- 
$60,  their  capacity  being  nearly  500  Ibs.  per  hour.  This  appar-  ance 
atus  is  about  6  feet  long,  12  inches  wide  and  16  inches  deep. 
The  mixing  shaft  has  a  velocity  corresponding  to  35  revolutions 
per  minute.  An  apparatus  for  mixing  3  tons  of  the  fodder  per 
hour  may  be  had  for  $150.  In  this  case  the  revolving  shaft 
turns  with  a  velocity  of  about  150  revolutions  per  minute.  When 
the  molasses  combination  is  finished,  it  is  emptied  on  a 
cemented  floor  and  allowed  to  cool.  Certain  precautionary 
measures  are  to  be  taken  during  the  mixing,  for  there  is  dan- 
ger of  fire;  but  this  danger  may  be  obviated  by  having  a  thick- 
ness of  only  18  inches  of  the  product  during  the.  mixing  in  the 
special  apparatus.  After  24  hours'  cooling  the  molasses  com- 
bination may  be  put  up  in  bags  and  after  several  days  addi- 
tional cooling,  it  may  be  stored  in  warehouses  just  as  sugar  is. 

Molasses  ma}7  be  rendered  liquid  by  heating  at  70°  to  75°  R. 
The  concentrate  is  added,  and  then  thoroughly  mixed  until 
cooling.  Experience  shows  that  the  mixing  tanks  should  be 
made  of  wood,  rather  than  iron,  and  be  rather  shallow.  The 
cost  of  this  operation  is  very  slight,  as  one  man  can  prepare 
fully  two  and  a  half  tons  of  this  forage  per  diem.  A  mixing 
appliance  of  the  Werner  and  Pfleiderer  system,  containing  400 
liters,  may  produce  5  tons  per  diem.  For  concentrates,  one 
may  use  to  advantage  bran,  dried  malt,  dried  brewers'  waste, 
etc.  The  best  proportion  for  this  mixing  is  one  part  of  each. 


294 


FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


The  resulting  forage  will  be  all  that  one  can  desire,  having  ex- 
cellent keeping  qualities,  and  not  soiling  the  fingers  when 
touched;  it  has,  moreover,  a  fine  appearance,  etc. 

The  farmer  has  every  advantage  in  preparing  his  own  com- 
binations, as  this  always  means  considerable  money  saving. 
Furthermore,  he  has  a  certain  assurance  that  the  product  he 
obtains  is  of  the  quality  anticipated.  In  order  to  conduct  this 
mixing  operation  to  advantage  he  can  use  the  waste  around  his 
barn,  or  if  he  has  to  purchase  outside,  he  should  stipulate  that 
the  material  in  question  shall  be  at  a  comparatively  low  rate. 

Herewith  are  several  German  analyses.  These  compositions, 
taken  as  a  whole,  vary  with  the  concentrate  used. 

ANALYSES  OF  VARIOUS  MOLASSES  RATIONS. 


CONSTITUENTS. 

Pair 
meJ 
mole 

i  A 
I. 

Per 
cent. 

16.93 
12.93 

1.64 
26.60 

26.14 

7.80 
7.85 
0.11 

a  oil 
il  + 

sses. 

II. 

Corn  gerrn  + 
molasses. 

I.        11.      III. 

Cocoanut 
cake  + 
molasses. 

Cocoanut 
wastes  + 
molasses. 

Bran  + 
molasses. 

Water 

Per 

cent. 

19.74 
12.50 
2.12 
27.93 

15.36 
16.20 
6.12 
0.03 

Per 
cent. 

14.68 
15.37 
3.79 
26.54 

29.45 
3.33 
6.82 
0.02 

Per 
cent. 

2100 
14.56 
3.79 
25.30 

26.70 

2.58 
6.07 

Per 
cent. 

17.40 
14.02 
5.78 
26.00 

26.70 
4.32 

5.78 

Per  cent. 

20.85 
J5.25 
2.19 
2943 

20.47 
3.07 
8.28 
0.46 

Per  cent. 

14.10 
10.99 
1.72 
24.28 

32.12 

7.05 
9.74 

Per  cent. 

16.50 
11.31 

4.67 
24.20 

32.20 
5.52 
5.60 

Nitrogenous  substances. 
Fatty  substances 

Sugar    

Non  -nitrogenous      sub- 
stances            -  .  .       . 

Cellulose          

Ash  

Sand  

Total 

100.00 
7.25 

100.00 
7.73 

100.00 
10.37 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

Albumin  

a  given  area 
of  land. 


Feeding  all  the  Maercker  has  discussed  the  question  of  whether  a  farmer 
m  should  feed  molasses  to  his  cattle  rather  than  the  beets 
from  which  the  residuum  was  obtained.  He  says,  we  may 
suppose  that,  to  every  2J  hectares  (6J  acres)  there  is  one  head 
of  cattle  to  be  fed  with  molasses.  Each  2-J  hectares  is  sub- 
mitted to  a  rotation  demanding  its  cultivation  only  after  four 
years,  and  the  beets  resulting  from  the  same  correspond  to 


VARIOUS    USES    OF    MOLASSES.  295 

40  tons  to  the  hectare  (16  tons  to  the  acre).  If  we  assume 
that  from  the  beets  at  the  factory  there  is  obtained  2.5  per  cent, 
molasses,- the  said  2.5  hectares,  admitting  only  J  is  cultivated  in 
beets,  will  furnish  625  kilos  of  molasses,  which  each  animal 
will  have  at  its  disposal.  This  corresponds  to  1.7  kilos  of 
molasses  per  diem  during  the  entire  year,  which  may  be  readily 
consumed. 

But  it  must  be  noticed  that  one  does  not  always  obtain  40 
tons  to  the  hectare,  and  furthermore,  that  the  four-years'  rota- 
tion is  not  always  practicable.  It  frequently  happens  that  one 
cow  is  fed  from  two  hectares.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
farmer  would  have  at  his  disposal  only  500  kilos  of  molasses 
per  annum,  meaning  an  allowance  of  only  1.250  kilos  per  head 
and  per  diem. 

However,  from  what  has  just  been  said,  it  is  evident  that 
only  under  exceptional  circumstances  one  is  unable  to  utilize 
all  the  molasses  that  results  from  regular  farming;  that  is 
furnishing  the  beets  to  the  factory  and  taking  in  return 
residuum,  pulps  and  molasses. 

Efforts   have   been   made   during   recent   years   to   use   this   Various  uses 
residuum  for  the  preparation  of  certain  chemical  combinations.    *J 
Numerous  modes  have  for  many  years  been  introduced  for  the 
working  of  molasses  in  sugar  factories,  but  have  not  given  th< 
results  hoped  for. 

Various  means  have  been  resorted  to  with  a  view  of  increas- 
ing the  consumption  of  sugar  and  molasses.  Among  these  may 
be  mentioned  molasses  soap;  a  special  introduction  for  dyeing: 
also  the  idea  proposed  by  Vincent,  for  the  manufacture  oi 
ammonium  chlorid  and  methyl  chlorid;  the  object  in  view 
having  been  to  create  an  excessively  low  temperature.  The 
methods  of  Franck  and  Nycander  for  the  production  of  fer- 
ments may  also  be  mentioned,  and  those  of  Schering  for  the 
manufacture  of  levulose. 

It  may  seem  astonishing,  but  the  facts  prove  that  the  only 
molasses  utilization  that  has  great  practical  value,  when  allow- 
ing for  its  low  selling  price,  is  as  a  feed.  This  has  not  received 
the  attention  from  the  agricultural  authorities  that  it  justly 
deserves. 


296  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

Molasses  for  The  utilization  of  molasses  for  alcohol  manufacture  is  neces- 
alcohol  manu-  sarily  dependent  generally  upon  the  market  prices  of  this  pro- 
facture.  duct,  and  as  there  are  considerable  fluctuations,  the  industry 
itself  has  many  elements  to  contend  with.  As  an  example, 
during  many  years  in  France,  special  advantages  were  given  to 
molasses  distillers,  but  in  1902  this  legislation  was  changed 
and  the  residuum  can  now  no  longer  be  profitably  used  for  that 
purpose.  This  would  seem  to  be  a  great  injustice  to  individuals 
who  have  placed  their  money  in  an  investment  which  was  sup- 
posed to  have  been  backed  up  by  government  security.  The 
alcohol-molasses  industry  in  France  for  the  time  being  has 
become  a  question  of  the  past. 

In  this  respect,  however,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  it  is 
within  the  power  of  capitalists  to  overcome  this  difficulty  by 
adding  appliances  for  working  up  sugar  beets  to  their  existing 
distilleries;  but  when  one  considers  that  the  residuum  of  molas- 
ses represents  only  three  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  the  raw  material 
sliced,  it  becomes  evident  that  an  establishment  of  this  kind 
would  mean  an  enormous  money  outlay. 

Many  of  the  existing  distilleries  can  handle  the  molasses  re- 
siduum from  a  plant  working  1000  tons  of  sugar  beets  per  diem. 
A  distillery  that  could  work  up  the  mash  from  such  a  bulk  of 
fermented  beets  would  handle  several  hundred  tons  of  roots  in  the 
24  hours,  and  the  cost  of  the  diffusers  and  the  other  necessary 
appliances  would  certainly  not  amount  to  less  than  $100,000. 

For  many  years  the  molasses-distillers'  waste  has  been  utilized 

for  the  manufacture  of  potash,  soda  and  potassic  chlorid.     It 

has  also  been  used  for  feeding  purposes,  and  as  a  fertilizer. 

Molasses  permits      ^he  use  °*  molasses  permits  the  utilization  of  certain  feeds 

the  utilization  that  have  undergone  more  or  less  transformation  during  their 

of  slightly  mil-  keeping.     For  example,  hay  that  was  slightly  tainted  was  eaten 

dewed  or  tainted  wj^n  avidity  when  combined  with  2.2  Ibs.  molasses  diluted  in 

e  s>       3.6  Ibs.  warm  water  and  oat  straw,  which  stood  for  24  hours  in 

order  to  undergo  a  partial  fermentation.     With  this  feed  there 

was  an  increase  of  wreight.     The  explanation  is  that  the  molasses 

is  possessed  of  certain  disinfecting  properties. 

Molasses  as  a       Considered  only  from  a  theoretical  standpoint,  molasses  is  a 
fertilizer,     most  excellent  means  for  returning  to  the  soil  the  plant  foods 


MOLASSES    A3    A    FERTILIZER.  297 

that  have  been  taken  away  during  cultivation  of  the  crop  of 
beets  without  resorting  to  the  use  of  expensive  manures  in  order 
to  retain  the  fertility.  Without  entering  into  the  various  bene- 
ficial results  that  must  necessarily  follow  from  this  practice,  it 
suffices  to  say  that  it  stands  to  reason  that  if  certain  mineral 
substances  have  been  absorbed  by  the  beet  during  its  develop- 
ment, these,  if  returned,  will  maintain  the  continued  fertility  of 
the  soil,  which  maintenance  would  otherwise  have  been  impos- 
sible, and  the  benefits  derived  become  even  greater  when  defeca- 
tion scums  form  part  of  the  fertilizing  mixture. 

However,  molasses  should  never  be  utilized  for  fertilizing  in 
its  green  state,  for  many  of  its  elements  that  are  worthless  for 
this  purpose  may  render  great  service  in  other  directions,  such 
as  cattle  feeding,  etc.  For  the  farmer,  its  money  equivalent  as 
a  fertilizer  must  not  be  overlooked.  Unfortunately,  however, 
in  the  United  States  the  problem  of  returning  the  plant  food  to 
the  soil  has  been,  up  to  the  present,  too  frequently  neglected. 

If  one  makes  allowance  for  the  fact  that  molasses  contains, 
on  an  average,  1.5  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  and  5  to  6  per  cent,  of 
oxid  of  potassium,  and  that  in  the  excrements  of  animals  fed 
upon  this  product  may  be  found  1  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  with  5 
per  cent,  of  oxid  of  potassium,  0.03  per  cent,  to  0.06  per  cent, 
phosphoric  acid,  0.3  per  cent,  to  0.5  per  cent,  lime,  and  about 
50  per  cent,  non-nitrogenous  substances,  one  may  conclude 
that  molasses,  as  a  forage,  has  a  greater  commercial  and  rural 
value  than  is  generally  supposed,  for  the  simple  reason  that  to 
its  nourishing  value  must  be  added  its  subsequent  use  as  a 
manure.  Nearly  all  the  foods  that  plants  need  are  found  in  the 
droppings  of  the  animals  fed. 

Sugar  in  the  animal  economy  may  play  an  important  role, 
mainly  in  the  formation  of  fat.  Consequently  it  is  of  greater 
advantage  to  allow  these  hydro-carbons  to  pass  through  the  an- 
imal's body,  than  it  would  be  to  resort  to  any  preliminary  effort 
of  its  use  as  a  fertilizer,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  mineral 
elements  always  pass  through  the  body  of  the  animal  without 
undergoing  chemical  changes. 

In  Germany  there  are  produced  400,000  tons  of  molasses  that 
contain  5,200  tons  of  nitrogen,  corresponding  to  28,000  tons  of 


298      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

Chilien  saltpetre.  Furthermore,  this  product  contains  28,000 
tons  of  potassium  oxid.  It  necessarily  follows  that  if  all  the 
molasses  were  utilized,  farmers  would  have  at  their  disposal 
an  excellent  fertilizing  material  of  the  value  of  $1,000,000.  In 
Germany  it  was  recommended  that,  in  consideration  of  the  low 
selling  price  of  molasses,  the  product  be  practically  used  as  a 
fertilizer,  but  this  idea  was  very  illogical,  as  it  would  be  throw- 
ing away  without  any  possible  profit  the  money  that  might  be 
derived  from  the  sugar  contained  in  this  residuum,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  non-nitrogenous  substances  to  be  found  in  it. 

By  the  use  of  molasses  as  a  forage  the  farmer  returns  all  the 
salts  that  had  been  previously  taken  from  the  soil,  which  in 
other  words  means  all  the  plant  foods  that  have  been  extracted 
by  the  plant  during  its  growth.  Furthermore,  there  is  another 
advantage  derived  from  this  molasses  feeding,  which  is  that  the 
money  profits  derived  from  the  same  are  general] 3^  greater  than 
would  have  been  realized  if  the  residuum  were  employed  for 
the  extraction  of  sugar. 

Analysis  of  The  Association  of  Austrian  Chemists,  during  1901,  made  the 
molasses  feeds,  following  resolutions:  That  the  molasses  forage  combinations 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  and  that  the  precaution  be  taken 
to  constantly  bring  to  the  top  the  lower  strata  of  the  feeds,  as  it 
is  there  that  the  molasses  always  settles.  An  average  sample  of 
500  grams  should  be  dried  at  100°  C.  and  afterwards  thoroughly 
pulverized.  Without  a  previous  understanding,  this  sample 
should  be  used  for  the  analysis.  The  desiccation  is  done  in  a 
small  tared  receptacle  having  a  suitable  stopper  hermetically 
closing  the  same. 

The  total  nitrogen  is  estimated  by  the  Kjeldahl  method. 
To  1  gram  of  this  substance  with  mercury  add  30  cc.  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid.  This  acid  is  used  in  excess  on  account 
of  the  sulphurous  acid  liberated. 

The  nitrogen  of  the  albuminoids  is  determined  upon  1  gram 
of  the  substance  sprinkled  with  100  cc.  of  water  heated  to  boil- 
ing point,  25  cc.  of  a  6  per  cent,  solution  of  copper  sulphate 
and  25  cc.  of  a  12.5  per  cent,  caustic  soda.  The  addition  of  the 
soda  is  arranged  so  as  not  to  precipitate  all  the  copper.  This 
precipitate  is  rapidly  deposited  and  is  filtered,  and  then  washed 


ANALYSIS    OF    MOLASSES    FEEDS.  299 

with  water  until  all  sulphate  reaction  disappears  in  the  filtrate 
under  the  action  of  barium  chlorid.  It  is  important  to  men- 
tion in  the  analysis  what  method  has  been  adopted  for  the  esti- 
mation, and  furthermore  to  state  whether  the  gastric  juice  of  a 
pig  or  commercial  pepsin  has  been  employed.  First  of  all  the 
molasses  should  be  removed,  and  five  grams  of  the  pulverized 
feed  are  washed  in  100  cc.  of  cold  water.  This  water  should 
be  added  drop  by  drop,  using  asbestos  as  a  filtering  surface, 
and  then  following  by  an  ether  extraction. 

The  sugar  estimation  is  made  by  the  usual  method  of  polar- 
ization. 

Other  non-nitrogenous  extractible  substances  are  determined 
by  subtracting  from  100  the  water,  fatty  substances,  sugar,  cel- 
lulose, ash  and  nitrogenous  substances  multiplied  by  6.25. 

The  cellulose  is  determined,  according  to  Weender,  with  3 
grams  of  sulphuric  acid  and  caustic  potash. 

The  ash  is  estimated  upon  10  grams  in  a  porcelain  capsule 
heated  in  a  special  muffle  furnace,  such  as  is  used  in  sugar  fac- 
tories. 

The  molasses  percentage  is  estimated  by  assuming  that  the 
sample  polarizes  50.  The  nitrogenous  substances,  estimated 
by  using  the  factor  6.25,  should  be  shown  upon  the  analysis 
bulletin,  and  never  as  raw  protein. 

The  nitrogen  of  albuminoids,  determined  according  to  Stutter, 
multiplied  by  6.25,  is  known  as  an  albuminoid  combination. 
The  nitrogenous  substances  last  found  are  called  amide  acids. 

The  difference  between  non-assimilated  nitrogen  multiplied 
by  6.25  and  the  albuminoid  combinations  is  called  assimilated 
albuminoid  substance. 

It  is  recommended  as  far  as  possible  to  make  a  thorough  mi- 
croscopic examination  of  the  absorbing  substances  used.  It  is 
desirable,  when  examining  peat  molasses  feeds,  not  to  estimate 
the  nitrogen  in  all  its  combinations,  but  simply  to  mention  the 
total  nitrogen  that  it  contains. 

The  Miiller  method  unfortunately  can  be  applied  only  to  fresh 
combinations.  Twenty-five  grams  of  the  forage  are  constantly 
stirred  up  with  250  grams  of  water.  One  hundred  cc.  of  this 
solution  are  treated  by  15  to  20  mgr.  of  tannin,  10  cc.  of  sub- 


300  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,   ETC. 

acetate  of  lead,  10  cc.  of  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  alum,  and  a 
very  small  quantity  of  hydrated  alumina.  This  is  mixed,  fil- 
tered and  polarized.  The  molasses  added  to  the  forage  is  sup- 
posed to  contain  48  per  cent,  of  sugar.  To  determine  the  fatty 
substances,  the  forage  is  heated  in  an  oven  at  100°  C.  for  three 
hours;  it  is  then  reduced  to  a  powder,  two  grams  of  which  are 
weighed  in  a  porcelain  capsule,  and  subsequently  placed  under 
an  air-exhausting  apparatus.  The  molasses  is  extracted  by  cold 
water,  the  remaining  product  dried,  and  submitted  to  the  dis- 
solving power  of  ether  for  15  hours.  Under  these  circumstances 
there  is  no  saponification  of  the  fatty  substances.  The  details 
of  the  operations  that  follow  it  is  unnecessary  to  describe. 

The  fact  is  that  the  whole  question  of  molasses  fodder  analysis 
has  been  widely  discussed,  so  much  so  that  a  special  congress 
of  the  German  experiment  stations  was  held  some  years  since, 
and  they  centered  their  attention  upon  the  Neubauer  method. 
It  is  declared  that  this  special  forage  has  but  little  if  any  influ- 
ence on  polarized  light,  and  if  this  molasses  combination  had 
any  polarizing  power  it  would  be  necessary  to  establish  special 
compensating  factors  for  each  combination  under  consideration. 

As  regards  the  invert  sugar  that  is  formed  during  keeping 
and  is  mainly  due  to  the  influence  of  high  temperature,  it  be- 
comes important  to  polarize  the  solution  after  inversion  in  order 
to  form  some  exact  idea  of  the  sugar  percentage.  The  polariza- 
tion gives  exact  results  only  for  certain  forages. 

According  to  Emmerling,  in  order  to  estimate  the  nutritive 
value  of  a  forage  made  with  molasses,  one  should  take  £  of  the 
nutritive  value  of  sugar  as  the  nutritive  value  of  nitrogenous 
non-albuminous  substances,  of  the  molasses  that  are  contained 
in  quantities  corresponding  to  eight  times  less  than  the  sugar  and 
having  the  same  nutritive  equivalent  as  carbohydrates.  It  is 
important  to  estimate  the  sugar,  the  fatty  substances  and  the 
protein.  The  data  obtained  is  multiplied  by  the  nutritive  value 
of  each  of  these,  allowing  for  the  amids  of  molasses  the  same 
equivalent  as  sugar,  and  it  is  upon  this  basis  that  one  should 
compensate  for  any  error  that  might  be  made  and  thereby  bring 
about  a  certain  harmony  between  purchaser  and  buyer. 


PART  FIFTH. 

Feeding  with  Sugar. 

WHAT  becomes  of  sugar  formed  in  the  liver  and  carried  to  all     Preliminary 
parts  of  the  body  by  the  blood?     What  is  its  role?  remarks. 

Sugar,  as  its  composition  shows,  contains  carbon,  oxygen  and 
hydrogen.  The  carbon  throws  out  in  burning,  or  oxidizing, 
carbonic  acid,  water  and  heat,  which  may  be  transformed  into 
work  and  energy.  It  is  concluded  from  this  that  sugar  produces 
at  least  a  portion  of  the  animal  heat,  and  recent  experiments 
show  beyond  cavil,  that  we  must  also  look  to  the  same  material 
for  the  muscular  energy  or  work. 

It  is  to  Mr.  Chauveau  that  the  credit  is  justly  due  for  the  en- 
tire investigations  upon  this  most  important  subject,  as  before 
his  time  the  theories  advanced  were  certainly  most  erroneous. 

A  celebrated  authority  such  as  Claude  Bernard  enunciated 
the  theory  that  sugar  disappeared  in  the  lungs.     As  early  as 
1856  Chauveau  showed  that  there  were  traces  of  sugar  in  the    Cnauveau's 
entire  arterial  circulation  which  gradually  disappeared  in  produc-       theory, 
ing  heat.     He  enunciated  his  ideas  about  as  follows: 

"  Energy  devoted  to  the  production  of  work  always  means 
muscular  energy,  and  in  all  cases  has  for  its  principal  starting 
point  the  combustion  of  glycogen,  with  which  the  tissues  of  the 
organs  are  impregnated.  Blood  becomes  poorer  in  glucose, 
during  its  general  capillary  circulation,  and  mainly  in  the  mus- 
cular tissues." 

Chauveau  has  shown  that  there  existed  a  relation  between 
muscular  energy,  glycogen  production  and  the  destruction  of 
sugar  in  the  blood.  These  investigations  were  mainly  centered  • 

upon  horses,  showing  the  exchange  that  took  place  in  the  blood 
passing  through  muscles  at  rest  and  during  work.  As  an  ex- 
ample the  muscles  used  during  mastication  and  the  glands  se- 
creting saliva  were  watched  during  this  study.  The  law,  which 

(301) 


302  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

was  the  outcome  of  this  experiment,  was  based  upon  the  influ- 
ence of  the  work  of  an  organ  of  the  body  upon  organic  combus- 
tion and  also  upon  the  sugar  consumed.  Chauveau  further  says: 

"The  work  accomplished  by  the  organs  during  their  physio- 
logical activity,  indicates  that  the  amount  of  sugar  that  disap- 
pears during  rest  is  less  than  during  work.  It  is  proportional  to 
the  combustion,  which  is  the  natural  outcome  of  the  working  of 
the  organs  proper." 

An  example  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  contrast  between 
sugar  destruction  in  the  blood,  during  rest  and  during  work. 
Blood  passing  through  a  special  muscle  of  a  horse's  mouth  dur- 
ing a  given  time,  and  while  at  rest,  viz. :  when  it  is  not  eating, 
will  throw  out  an  amount  of  carbonic  acid  corresponding  to  20.4. 
While  eating,  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  thrown  off  was  69.55. 
In  other  words,  during  the  muscular  activity  of  simple  masti- 
cation the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  evolved  is  increased  to  69.55 
during  work,  that  is,  this  activity  alone  demands  a  consumption 
in  the  muscle  of  over  three  times  that  which  is  necessary  during 
rest. 

If  one  estimates  the  amount  of  glucose  that  disappears  in  the 
blood  that  passes  through  a  muscle  during  rest  and  during  work, 
as  based  upon  the  experiments  of  Chauveau  and  Kauffmann, 
there  is  a  glucose  combustion  of  0. 12  grams  in  the  first  case,  and 
0.41  grams  during  work.  We  may  conclude  from  this  that  the 
blood  passing  through  a  muscle  absorbs  during  its  activity  more 
than  three  times  the  amount  of  sugar  that  is  consumed  during 
rest.  From  this  we  may  further  conclude  there  is  a  certain 
correlation  existing  between  the  loss  of  sugar  in  the  blood  and  in 
the  increased  combustion  during  the  physiological  activity  of 
the  muscle.  Such  being  the  case,  there  is  apparently  no  doubt 
that  sugar  is  a  direct  factor  in  the  question  of  muscular  activity, 
and  this  has  been  the  starting  point  for  the  re-organization  of  the 
daily  rations  allowed,  not  only  to  soldiers,  but  to  horses,  in 
nearly  all  of  the  European  armies. 

Practical  tests       Examples  almost  without  limit  can  be  given  of  tests  upon  two 

upon  men.     regiments  of  soldiers,  one  mounted  and  the  other  unmounted, 

one  consuming  sugar  and  the  other  without  sugar,  where  the 

amount  of  work  accomplished   was  certainly  in  favor  of  the 


FEEDING  OF  SUGAR  TO  CATTLE.  303 

sugar  ration.  Much  remains  to  be  done  in  this  special  direc- 
tion, but  what  has  been  accomplished  is  certainly  a  hint  as  to 
future  possibilities. 

Schonberg  has  noticed  the  excellent  results  that  may  be  de- 
rived from  sugar  feeding,  and  which  were  based  upon  a  very 
simple  experiment  of  giving  only  30  grams  of  supplementary 
sugar  to  a  gang  of  workmen;  this  alone  was  sufficient  to  prolong 
their  efforts  for  several  hours  without  any  perceptible  fatigue. 

Such  being  the  case,  it  stands  to  reason  that  the  breeder  has  Advantages  to 
every  advantage  in  introducing  a  reasonable  amount  of  sugar    the  breeder. 
into  the  daily  rations  of  the  animals  under  his  care,  when  the 
opportunity  presents  itself. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  investigations  relative  to  the  in- 
fluence of  sugar  upon  muscular  energy  have  become  extremely 
popular  during  the  last  few  years.  It  is  not  long  since  that  the 
theory  obtained  that  nitrogenous  substances  were  always  respon- 
sible for  muscular  activity.  Hence  the  animals,  from  whom 
considerable  work  was  demanded,  were  fed  upon  very  narrow 
rations. 

Sugar  for  cattle  feeding  commenced  in  the  fifties  in  Continental 
Europe,  but  as  we  have  before  pointed  out,  the  utilization  of 
sugar  for  this  purpose  goes  back  to  the  early  part  of  the  last 
century,    and,"  notwithstanding   constant   agitation  arguing  in  f^g  Of  sugar 
favor  of  its  importance,  it  is  only  within  comparatively  recent    to  cattle  in  the 
years   that   the   practice   has   made    any   important   progress.    ear|y  Part  of 
Strange  as  it  may  seem,  as  early  as  1800  the  British  market  w?as    last 
almost  glutted  with  sugar  and  it  was  during  the  years  that  fol- 
lowed,  that  several  interesting  pamphlets  were  written  upon 
sugar  in  cattle  feeding.     The  arguments  then  advanced  are  true 
at  the  present  time,  and  there  is  now  a  threatened  overproduc- 
tion.    The  sugar  consumption  was  very  small  a  hundred  years 
ago,  hence  the  several  sugar  islands  could  more  than  meet  the 
demand.     The  situation  in  1901  has  changed;  sugar  has  be- 
come almost  a  household  necessity,  and  the  beet  sugar  and  cane 
sugar,  in  their  efforts  to  meet  the  demand,  have  thrown  upon 
the  market  a  volume  of  this  commodity,  which  has  resulted  in 
a  constant  fall  in  price,  giving  a  just  cause  of  alarm  to  all  inter- 
ested.    Efforts  are  being  made  in  Continental  Europe  to  popu- 


304  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,    ETC. 

larize  and  increase  the  demand  for  sugar;  new  theories  have 
been  introduced  showing  that  sugar  means  strength,  which  is 
in  direct  contradiction  to  the  views  entertained  not  many  years 
since  by  most  of  the  medical  authorities. 

Early  arguments  for  feeding  sugar  were,  that  one  shilling's 
worth  of  sugar  will  save  two  shillings'  worth  of  hay,  and  that  dis- 
solved sugar  added  to  either  h&y  or  straw  will  increase  the  value 
and  quality  of  the  hay  or  straw.  In  1809  it  was  declared  in 
England  that  "if  the  use  of  sugar  once  becomes  general,  the 
price  of  butchers'  meat  must  certainly  be  lower,  for  this  plain 
reason,  a  much  greater  quantity  of  young  stock  could  be  raised 
in  many  parts  of  the  kingdom,  where  they  now  cannot  do  it, 

*  *  *  butchers'  meat  would  come  within  reach  of  multitudes. 
Another  good  effect  arising  from  the  use  of  sugar  would  be, 
keeping  at  home  a  considerable  sum  of  money  which  is  sent 
out  every  year  to  the  ports  of   our  enemies   for  butter   and 
cheese."     It  is  interesting   to  note  the  important  role  sugar 
was  to  play  in    the  navy,   such   as  in  the  East   India   Com- 
pany's  service.     For    "every   vessel   going  on  a  long   voyage 

*  *  *  one-half  the  quantity  of  hay  at  present  consumed  on 
board  ship  will  be  sufficient,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  mo- 
lasses or  sugar,  which  occupies  so  much  less  room  and  comes 
so  much  cheaper;  so  that  it  will  have  this  good  effect.  *  *  * 
Straw,  which  may  be  had  in  most  places,  or  any  coarse  matter 

*  *  *  may,  by  the  addition  of  a  little  sugar  or  molasses,  be 
converted   into  a  most  nutritive  and  wholesome   food,   much 
superior  to  hay  in  point  of  quality."     It  was  suggested  that 
experiments  be  made  in  feeding  horses  with  sugar;  it  was  even, 
one  hundred  years  ago,  pointed  out  that  a  horse  fed  on  sugar 
will  show  signs  of  improved  condition  and  have  a  glossy  shining 
coat,  etc.     It  was  then  argued  that  there  were  certain  dangers 
of  over-feeding  with  sugar,  as  the  animal  would  become  "soft;" 
with  molasses  given  in  small  quantities  the  same  difficulties 
were  not  to  be  dreaded.     It  was  recommended  that  molasses  be 
given  either  in  their  drink  in  the  stable  bucket,  mixed  with 
water,  or  properly  diluted  and  sprinkled  among  their  chaff,  in 
which  case  the  quantity  of  hay  may  be  reduced  until  by  degrees 
none  need  be  given.     The  great  advantages  of  sugar  for  stall-fed 


FEEDING  OF  SUGAR  TO  CATTLE.  305 

horses  and  cattle  were  thoroughly  appreciated  in  the  early  part 
of  the  century;  attention  was  called  to  the  fact  that  when  put 
to  grass  they  "  will  begin  to  fill  and  thrive  forthwith."  On  the 
other  hand,  "cattle,  taken  from  a  straw-yard  where  they  have 
been  indifferently  fed  during  the  winter,  must  be  a  considerable 
time  on  the  grass  before  they  recover  from  the  starvation,  and, 
consequently,  take  up  so  much  time  and  food  to  no  other  pur- 
pose, which  a  thriving  animal  will  convert  to  immediate  profit." 
Some  enthusiasts  went  so  far  as  to  insist  upon  it  that  sugar  was 
in  reality  the  principal  nutrient  found  in  all  feeding  stuffs, 
which  has  long  since  been  proven  to  be  a  very  erroneous  hypo- 
thesis. 

Experiments  were  made  upon  various  animals  to  deter- 
mine the  practical  effects  of  sugar-feeding;  one  of  the  most 
interesting  of  these  was  on  an  old  horse,  eighteen  years  of  age, 
which  had  been  turned  out  to  grass,  but  which  in  time  was 
nothing  but  flesh  and  bones,  and  was  condemned  to  be  shot; 
the  first  week's  feeding  was  with  hay  and  straw,  chaff  and  one- 
quarter  pound  molasses  diluted  with  water;  the  oats  allowance 
was  reduced  to  a  quart  a  day.  After  eight  days  the  molasses 
allowance  was  increased  to  half  a  pound  per  diem,  and  at  the 
end  of  a  "  fortnight  there  was  a  visible  alteration  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  horse. ' '  After  the  third  week  the  molasses  allow- 
ance was  still  further  increased  and  the  animal  fed  underwent 
a  complete  change.  In  feeding  cows  with  sugar  some  special 
advice  was  given.  "It  is  of  particular  importance  to  be  very 
economical  as  to  the  quantity  given;  for  whilst  a  small  addition 
of  it  to  their  usual  food  will  be  found  to  improve  the  quality  of 
their  milk,  too  much,  and  but  a  very  little  too  much,  will  cause 
them  to  run  to  beef  more,  perhaps,  than  milk  *  *  *  brown 
sugar  is  found  to  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of  vegetable 
or  essential  oil  *  *  *  the  use  of  molasses  must  be  the  means  of 
a  great  increase  of  profit  to  the  butter  dairy,  and  particularly  as 
it  can  be  so  conveniently  had  in  winter  time,  when  succulent 
food  is  scarce."  If  sugar  were  employed  in  winter,  it  would 
diminish  the  quantity  of  butter  imported.  "Sugar  or  molasses 
will  never  from  its  purity  impart  any  bad  taste  to  the  milk, 
whilst  turnips  and  cabbages,  the  principal  dependence  in  winter, 
20 


306  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,   SUGAR,  ETC. 

are  both  of  them  apt  to  give  a  most  rank  and  disagreeable  taste 
to  both  butter  and  milk."  A  hundred  years  ago  it  was  justly 
argued  that  "should  the  plan  of  using  molasses  become  general, 
we  may  soon  expect  to  see  butter  dairies  established  in  the  most 
remote  and  barren  districts  of  the  kingdom."  It  was  urged  in 
regard  to  the  use  of  sugar  in  the  West  Indies  and  the  British 
East  Indies  (for  the  colonies  were  badly  supplied  with  beef) 
that  if  sugar  feeding  were  resorted  to  "there  is  no  reason  why 
they  should  not  have  beef  nearly  if  not  entirely  as  good  as  that 
fed  in  England." 

The  following  original  argument  was  advanced  relative  to 
cattle  feeding  in  very  hot  climates — "the  heat  of  the  climate 
is  not  inimical  to  the  operation  of  fattening  so  much  as  the  rays 
of  the  sun,  and  if  this  is  properly  observed  it  will  clear  up  a 
mistake  very  prevalent.  The  heat  of  the  weather,  at  least  of  the 
West  Indies,  is  very  much  in  favor  of  fattening.  It  is  necessary 
to  observe  that  cattle  should  be  most  carefully  screened  from 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  *  *  *  They  must  be  well  supplied  with 
water  as  fresh  as  possible,  into  which  there  should  be  put  as 
much  acid,  made  of  fermented  sugar-wash,  as  will  give  it  a 
pleasant  astringent  taste  in  the  mouth,  and  I  would  by  all 
means  recommend  a  liberal  supply  of  salt,  which  is  particularly 
palatable  to  cattle.  *  *  *  A  beast  getting  a  sufficient  quantity 
will  fatten  much  sooner,  and  less  food  in  proportion  will  do  for 
him  than  if  he  did  not  get  any,  but  above  all  things  it  is  neces- 
sary in  a  warm  climate.  *  *  *  It  is  recommended  that  the  wort 
which  is  given  to  cattle  in  any  hot  climate  be  made  for  some 
time  before  using — just  long  enough  to  let  it  go  through  as  much 
fermentation  as  will  give  it  a  certain  vinosity  in  its  taste,  and 
take  off  from  that  heaviness  which  all  sweets  are  apt  to  have, 
and  which  would  perhaps  otherwise  pall  upon  the  appetite  and 
prevent  the  animals  taking  a  sufficient  quantity." 

Early  discussion  on  cattle  feeding  with  sugar  contain  many 
practical  suggestions.  "Cattle  that  are  out  in  the  open  pasture, 
where  they  have  plenty  of  water,  do  not  need  much  attendance; 
but  where  they  are  confined  in  a  house  closely  tied  up,  and 
have  not  anything  but  what  is  given  them,  a  very  little  neglect 
on  the  part  of  their  keeper  will  show  on  them;  and  though  the 


FEEDING  OF  SUGAR  TO  CATTLE.  307 

cause  may  remain  concealed,  the  effect  will  be  very  evident. 
An  injudicious  application  of  the  food,  giving  too  much  or  too 
little,  neglect  of  watering,  in  short,  any  deviation  from  what  is 
proper  will  prevent  the  beast  thriving."  It  was  urged  that  no 
experiments  in  feeding  sugar  to  cattle  be  done  by  persons  who 
may  neglect  details,  for  the  results  obtained  would  be  very  mis- 
leading. 

Oil  cake  in  feeding  had  at  first  a  certain  opposition  to  con- 
tend with,  but  in  the  end  it  became  popular.  Those  using  the 
product  claimed  that  the  resultant  meat  had  a  peculiar  taste, 
which  differed  from  that  obtained  when  the  cattle  were  fed  upon 
grass.  An  interesting  fact  was  noticed,  that  cattle  thus  fed 
"  travelled  very  badly  and  fell  away  on  the  road.  These  objec- 
tions by  no  means  exist  in  the  use  of  sugar;  so  far  from  com- 
municating anything  disagreeable  to  the  beef,  it  gives  it  all  that 
fine  rich  taste  and  marbled  appearance  of  the  finest  grass-fed 
meat.  *  *  *  In  the  West  Indian  trade  it  is  the  custom  to  feed 
cattle  in  those  islands  with  oil  cakes.  *  *  *  One  is  surprised 
that  the  most  nutritive  food  in  nature  *  *  *  has  been  thrown 
in  their  way,"  and  not  used.  As  regards  feeding  molasses  to 
sheep,  it  was  declared  that  the  condition  and  appearance  of  the 
animals  would  change  if  the  product  was  given  a  fair  trial.  The 
proposed  manner  of  feeding  was  as  follows:  "Let  a  quantity 
of  molasses,  diluted  in  water,  be  sprinkled  with  a  common 
gardener' s-pot  and  have  the  sheep  driven  to  the  spot;  they  will 
not  be  long  there  till  they  find  something  very  palatable  in  the 
taste  of  the  grass.  *  *  *  They  will  eat  the  grass  down  to  the 
root.  By  this  means  they  eat  away  the  heart,  and  in  a  very 
short  time  it  will  perish  and  totally  disappear,  leaving  room  for 
a  more  valuable  and  useful  kind  to  grow,  which  the  dung  of  the 
sheep  will  contribute  to  encourage. ' ' 

As  regards  pen  feeding,  it  was  declared  that  "with  molasses 
and  chaff  of  any  description  placed  in  troughs,  a  mode  of  man- 
agement which  they  will  soon  come  into,  they  will  thrive  as 
well  as  if  wandering  over  a  large  pasture.  When  they  once 
become  accustomed  to  it,  the  farmer  will  find  it  the  most  ex- 
peditious mode  of  fattening  and  by  far  the  cheapest;  a  sheep  on 
sugar-feeding  will  carry  a  quantity  of  fat  meat,  greater  in  pro- 


308 


FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


portion  than  on  grass-feeding  and  in  a  much  shorter  time." 
While  it  was  once  thought  that  it  was  not  desirable  to  rear 
litters  of  pigs  during  the  winter  without  the  assistance  of  the 
dairy,  it  may  be  readily  "proved  that  molasses  may  be  used  in 
rearing  young  pigs  with  equal  advantage  as  milk,  that  they 
will  thrive  equally  well  upon  it  at  any  season  of  the  year, 
amply  paying  for  their  keeping,  and  their  litters  may  be  reared 
as  well  in  winter  as  in  summer."  The  president  of  the  board 
of  agriculture  wrote  to  Ed.  T.  Waters,  Esq.,  in  1809,  asking 
the  following  questions  in  regard  to  his  experiments  with 
molasses  in  cattle  feeding. 


QUESTION. 

(1)  What  had  been  the  food  of  the 
stock  previous  to  the  experiments? 

(2)  Were  they  lean,  in  good  order, 
or  advanced  in  their  fattening  ? 

(3)  Were  they  confined  to  stalls  or 
ranging  in  the  field  ? 

(4)  The  progress  of  the  quantity  of 
sugar  given,   and   what    other    food 
eaten  at  the  same  time? 


(5)  Did  the  sugar  agree  with  the 
stock  ? 

( 6 )  Kespecting  the   state  of  their 
dung? 


(7)  Were  any  trials  made  on  the 
addition  of  such  substances  as  would 
prevent  the  use  of  sugar  for  common 
domestic  purposes? 

(8)  How  long  was   the  trial   con- 
tinued ? 

(9)  A  local  question  of  price. 

(10)  Was  any  memorandum  made 
of  the  water  drunk  more  or  less  than 
when  on  other  food? 


ANSWER. 

(1)  Grass. 

(2)  Good   store  condition   on   the 
first  of  October,  when  put  to  molasses. 

(3)  Tied  up  in  stalls  the  first  of 
October,    the   time    of   taking    from 
grass. 

(4)  What  hay  they  would  eat,  say 
three  trusses  per  ox  per  week,  with 
one  pound  and  a  half  of  molasses  to 
three  gallon  buckets  of  water;  half  a 
pound  in  each  bucket  per  day. 

(5)  Perfectly. 

(6)  The  dung  is  an  object  of  mate- 
rial attention,  as  it  is  the  criterion  of 
their   doing   well   or   ill;     it   should 
come   from  them  in  state  of  consist- 
ency, not  to  soil  themselves. 

(7)  Certainly  not. 


(8)  My  various  experiments  are  of 
two  years'  standing. 

(10)  They   require   less    than    on 
other  food. 


SUGAR    FOR    GENERAL    FEEDING.  309 

(11)  Were  any  observations  made  (11)  Nothing    could    exceed    the 
on  the  quality  of  the  flesh  produced  quality   of  the  flesh,  and   from  the 
by   this   food?      If   any   trials  were  trial  I  made  on  milch  cows   it  cer- 
made  on  milch  cows,  what  was  the  tainly  greatly  improved  their  condi- 
effect  on  the  quality  and  quantity  of  tion  without  any  visible  increase  of 
the  milk  ?  the  quantity  of  milk. 

(12)  From  the  result  of  your  trials,  (12)  The  use  of  the  molasses  must 
have  you  found  any  estimate  of  the  depend  on  the  price  of  every  other 
price  at  which   this   article   of  food  article  of  a  fattening  tendency, 
would  be  profitable  in  the  use? 

(13)  Were  the  stock  weighed  alive  (13)  No  weight  of  stock  taken  at 
at  the  commencement  of  the  experi-  the  time  of  putting  up;  their  value 
ment,    or    the   value  ascertained    by  increased  in  as  great  a  proportion  as 
other  means  ?  if  fed  by  any  other  means. 

(14)  Were   the   stock  slaughtered  (14)  The  two  former  sets  of  oxen 
from  sugar  or  put  to  other  food?     If  were  slaughtered  from  molasses;  the 
the  latter,  were  they  weighed  alive,  last    two    oxen    deemed    worthy    of 
to    ascertain     the     increase— weight  notice  at  Lord  Somerville's  show  were 
gained  by  the  sugar?  fed  on  molasses  the  1st  of  February, 

and  the  remaining  month  upon  cake. 

But  between  1850  and  I860  some  German  investigations  were 
the  starting  point  of  considerable  information  on  the  subject, 
and  deserve  more  than  a  passing  notice. 

It  was  very  natural  that  as  sugar  had  been  used  in  the  form  of 
molasses  for  forage  combinations,  the  use  of  sugar  alone  should 
have  been  thought  of.  The  only  obstacle  in  the  way  was  its 
excessive  price;  but  in  1874,  after  the  duty  on  sugar  had  been 
done  away  with  in  England,  renewed  efforts  were  made  to  feed 
cattle  with  it,  and  little  by  little  this  has  become  a  regular  prac- 
tice in  that  country. 

In  Brazil,  chickens  and  the  like  have  been  fed  with  sugar  for  Sugar  for  ger- 
many  years  back.     In  India  it  is  frequently  customary  to  sub-    ffa' 
stitute  a  portion  of  cereal  for  sugar  in  feeding,  with  the  view  to 
economy. 

Sugar  gives  to  all  animals  to  which  it  is  fed  the  best  of  ap- 
pearance, explained  by  the  fact  that  it  is  a  rational  substance, 
and  the  mammifera  consume  considerable  quantities  in  the  milk 
during  their  early  feeding.  However,  it  must  be  noticed  that 
saccharose  does  not  produce  the  most  desirable  effects  in  all 
cases,  and  this  may  be,  in  a  measure,  accounted  for  by  de- 
fective digestive  organs  which  vary  with  the  individual. 


310      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

If  sugar  is  not  administered  too  crudely,  heavy  rations  can 
do  very  little  harm.  The  absorption  is  accomplished  in  the 
stomach  and  in  the  large  intestine.  There  need  be  no  fear  as 
regards  intestinal  fermentation.  In  the  case  of  certain  animals, 
such  as  pigs  and  horses,  large  quantities  of  sugar  can  be  retained 
in  the  stomach  and  yet  undergo  no  fermentation;  when  this 
does  occur,  it  will  be  produced  in  the  large  intestine. 

In  the  case  of  ruminants,  Werther  has  noticed  various 
digestive  complications.  Forages  when  combined-  with  sugar 
undergo  a  slow  fermentation  in  the  first  stomach,  in  which 
comparatively  little  absorption  occurs.  A  certain  portion  of  the 
cellulose  is  dissolved,  while  the  other  hydrocarbons  undergo 
changes  that  are  in  direct  ratio  to  their  solubility  and  their 
quantity,  and  for  the  stock  under  consideration,  a  forage  con- 
taining a  large  amount  of  sugar  is  not  desirable. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  advantageously  used  in  cases 
where  animals  have  but  one  stomach.  This  decreased  digesti- 
bility in  the  case  of  ruminants  has  long  since  been  noticed  by 
Grouven  and  discussed  by  him  very  fully. 

Lawes  has  demonstrated  that  there  is  every  advantage  in 
giving  and  feeding  greater  quantities  of  albuminoids  in  those 
cases  where  considerable  sugar  is  used. 

Feeding  sugar  Some  very  important  experiments  have  been  made  in  the 
to  cdfves.  north  of  France  in  feeding  sugar  to  calves.  The  ration  consisted 
mainly  of  oleomargarine  and  raw  sugar.  Every  one  knows  of 
the  value  of  milk  in  feeding  very  young  animals,  but  it  is  an 
expensive  food  and  does  not  give  results  commensurate  with  its 
cost.  For  many  years  past  efforts  have  been  made  to  re- 
move the  cream  and  substitute  in  its  place  a  less  costly  pro- 
duct, such  as  cod-liver  oil,  etc.  Several  appliances  consequently 
came  into  existence,  permitting  a  thorough  mixing  of  skimmed 
milk  with  fatty  substances.  The  first  experiments  in  this  direc- 
tion were  made  in  this  country  in  the  New  England  States.  If 
oleomargarine  is  used,  it  should  be  heated  to  45°  to  50°  C. 
(113°-122°  F. ),  and  then  placed  in  the  mixer;  raw  sugar  is 
added  in  the  proportion  of  two  parts  sugar  for  one  part  oleo- 
margarine. When  this  combination  was  fed  to  the  calves  they 
fattened  at  a  rate  of  over  2  Ibs.  per  diem.  The  resulting  meat. 


FEEDING    SUGAR    TO    PIGS.  311 

while  not  of  the  very  first  quality,  brought  a  very  satisfactory 
price  on  the  market.  The  French  experiments  were  upon  the 
same  lines.  By  commencing  writh  60  grams  per  diem  (2. 10  oz. ) 
it  is  possible  to  force  the  consumption  of  oleomargarine  to  480 
grams  (about  1  Ib. )  for  two  calves,  this  being  combined  with 
about  18  quarts  of  skimmed  milk.  At  first  about  ^  of  an 
ounce  of  sugar  was  used  for  every  quart  of  milk  fed.  These 
experiments  lasted  from  November  until  February.  The  orig- 
inal weight  of  the  calves  was  llOlbs.,  and  their  final  weight 
311  Ibs.,  the  daily  increase  being  about  2.3  Ibs. 

Practical  experiments  in  Germany  seem  to  showr  that  there  is  Feeding  sugar 
more  money  to  be  made  in  feeding  sugar  to  pigs  at  the  actual      to  P'9S- 
price  of  the  market,  than  to  sell  it  in  its  raw  state.     Examples 
may  be  given  showing  that  when  sugar  was  selling  at  $2  per 
cwt.  the  resulting  increase  in  swine  flesh  was  worth  more  than 
double  that  amount.     Hence  if  pound  per  pound  increase  can 
be  gained  by  sugar  feeding  there  is  that  much  financial  profit. 

Experiments  in  Germany  were  made  upon  pigs  undergoing 
two  modes  of  feeding:  one  with  and  the  other  without  sugar. 
The  increase  in  one  case  wras  570  grams  per  diem,  and  the  other 
600  grams,  which  data,  however,  offers  nothing  especially  char- 
acteristic or  interesting. 

It  was  proposed  that  the  protein  percentage  should  be  in- 
creased in  the  rations  during  a  period  of  four  weeks,  the  normal 
ration  with  four  pigs  being  per  individual  and  per  diem  550 
grams  while  with  sugar  it  was  1  kilo.  This  increase  of  weight 
of  1  kilo  per  diem,  Maercker  says,  is  a  new  departure  in  pig 
feeding,  and  in  order  to  be  profitably  applied,  it  demands  spe- 
cial privileges  in  the  way  of  government  taxation.  This,  it  is 
thought,  may  be  a  starting  point  for  numerous  changes  in  the 
whole  question. 

The  most  recent  experiments  in  this  direction  were  with  a 
ration  consisting  of  potatoes,  milk,  crushed  barley  and  sugar, 
having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:8,  feeding  as  much  as  12  kilos  of 
sugar  per  1000  kilos  live  weight;  pigs  of  an  average  weight  of 
50  kilos  to  55  kilos  showed  an  increase  in  weight  per  diem  of 
957  grams,  while  without  sugar,  and  using  the  same  ration,  the 
increase  was  only  500  grams. 


312      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAH  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

The  Proskau  Milk  Institution  undertook  experiments  in 
feeding  to  pigs  a  mixture  of  sugar,  rye  bran  and  pulverized  meat 
to  determine  the  economical  yield  of  milk  under  the  respective 
influences  of  the  substances  mentioned;  it  was  concluded  that 
for  fattening,  sugar  does  not  give  the  same  economical  results  as 
cheap  fodders,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  its  use  gives  excel- 
lent results.  As  to  the  quality  of  the  resulting  meat,  its  constit- 
uents were  the  least  satisfactory.  Other  experiments  of  the 
same  kind  were  conducted  at  another  institution,  their  object 
Comparison  be-  being  to  determine  the  comparative  value  of  sugar,  starch  and 
tween  sugar  and  mo]asseSa  The  combinations  were  such  as  to  retain  the  same 
quantities  of  protein,  fatty  constituents  and  non-nitrogenous 
substances  in  each  fodder  used.  The  molasses  was  always  better 
than  sugar  for  the  purpose  in  view.  Molasses,  however,  could 
never  prove  economical,  unless  the  cost  of  a  pound  of  sugar  in 
that  form  was  less  than  the  cost  of  a  pound  of  starch.  Molasses  did 
not  give  any  special  characteristic  to  the  flesh  of  the  animal  fed. 
Opinions  re-  According  to  Zimmermann,  1  kilo  of  sugar  is  followed  by 
specting  sugar  (^72  kilo  increase  of  weight.  Lehmann  states  that  this  same 
quantity  of  sugar  will  give  J  kilo  of  fat.  It  is  to  be  noticed 
that  the  fat  produced  under  these  circumstances  is  flabby,  but 
as  a  gerreral  rule  the  marketable  meat  increases.  The  amount 
that  can  be  fed  to  growing  pigs  is  0.5  to  0.75  kilo  of  first-grade 
sugar  per  head  and  per  diem.  It  is  found  desirable  to  add  to 
the  ration  10  grams  of  salt. 

In  conclusion,  as  regards  the  question  of  pig  feeding  with 
sugar,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  best  results  are  obtained  with 
these  animals.  They  do  not  like  sugar,  but  their  organism  is 
so  arranged  as  to  derive  a  benefit  from  it. 

Numerous   experiments   have  been   made  in  feeding  sheep 
with  sugar,  but  most  of  them  have  not  been  a  success. 
Special  sugar       Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  experiments  of  Hlavitschka 
combinations,  and  Drucker,  wrho  have  transformed  fresh  blood  into  a  condition 
that  will  possess  keeping  power,  by  the  addition  of  salt  and 
alcohol.     This  product  is  heated  to  100°  C.  with  a  forage,  and 
is  then  covered  with  a  slight  layer  of  sugar. 

Economic          In  Continental  Europe  a  question  which  is    constantly  dis- 
considerations.  cugge^  js  the  utilization  of  the  over-production  of  beet  sugar. 


SUGAR    RATIONS    FOR    BULLS    AND    HEIFERS.  313 

Now  that  there  are  excellent  prospects  of  the  United  States 
manufacturing  all  the  sugar  consumed,  beet-sugar  manufact- 
urers of  France  and  Germany  are  asking  themselves  to  what 
new  use  can  sugar  be  put?  The  cheapness  of  sugar  on  the 
British  market  has  been  the  starting  point  of  a  new  jam  and 
other  allied  industries,  and  efforts  have  been  made  to  feed  cattle 
with  sugar  that  sold  for  two  cents  a  pound.  On  certain  farms 
coming  under  the  writer's  notice  satisfactory  results  have  been 
obtained.  In  some  experimental  stations  of  France  the  question 
has  been  seriously  discussed,  and  the  experiments  made  by 
M.  Malpeaux,  professor  of  an  influential  agricultural  school  of 
the  country  are  of  interest.  The  importance  of  sugar  in  the 
development  of  muscle  was  above  referred  to,  but  it  is  interest- 
ing to  add  that  sugar,  which  is  a  carbohydrate,  also  fattens  and 
nourishes  man  or  animal  when  it  is  eaten  with  certain  modera- 
tion. During  the  entire  century  the  authorities  have  never 
exactly  agreed  as  to  the  origin  of  fat  in  the  animal  frame,  but 
of  late  the  question  has  been  settled,  and  the  experiments  at 
Rothamsted,  England,  have  demonstrated  beyond  cavil  that 
sugar  could  be  transformed  into  fat. 

The   practical  experiments   recently  made  in   France   upon    Experimental 

bulls   and  heifers  are  of   more   than  ordinary  interest.     The  suflar  rations 

for  bulls  and 
daily  rations  consisted  of  4.4  Ibs.  clover  hay,  11  Ibs.  oat  straw,       .  ., 

06  Ibs.  special  corn  fodder,  2.2  Ibs.  cotton  oil  cake,  2.2  Ibs. 
grindings  of  rye  and  beans,  to  which  was  added  one  pound  of 
sugar.  The  experiments  lasted  fifty  days;  during  the  first 
twenty-five  days  only  one  bull  received  sugar,  the  other  animal 
being  used  as  a  standard  of  comparison;  the  result  was  a  gain 
in  weight  of  6.6  Ibs.  in  favor  of  sugar.  The  roles  were  reversed 
during  the  next  twenty-five  days  with  an  increase  of  8.8  Ibs.  in 
favor  of  sugar.  The  increase  of  live  weight  for  the  bulls  with 
sugar  rations  was  79.2  Ibs.,  while  without  sugar  it  was  63.8  Ibs., 
or  a  gain  of  15.4  Ibs.  With  sugar  the  first  bull  had  a  daily 
increase  of  1.5  Ibs.,  and  without  sugar  the  increase  was  1.3  Ibs.; 
with  sugar  the  increase  per  diem  of  the  second  bull  was  1.7  Ibs.. 
and  without  sugar,  1.3  Ibs.  With  the  heifers  the  increase  was 
even  more  evident;  the  first  heifer  with  sugar  had  a  daily 
increase  of  1.7  Ibs.,  and  without  sugar,  1.5  Ib. ;  with  sugar  the 


314      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

increase  per  diem  of  the  second  heifer  was  1.85  Ibs.,  and  with- 
out sugar,  1.4  Ibs.  The  conclusion  is  that  the  average  daily 
increase  in  favor  of  sugar  varied  from  0.2  Ib.  to  0.4  Ib.  An 
interesting  calculation  has  been  made  respecting  the  monev 
profits  of  sugar-feeding  over  and  above  the  regular  rations,  and 
it  is  found  that  for  the  two  bulls  it  was  11  cents,  for  the  two 
heifers  32  cents,  which  amounts  are  hardly  worth  considering. 
Influence  of  Very  important  observations  have  been  made  respecting  the 
SUfl^Jpo  influence  of  sugar  upon  the  quantity  of  milk.  Experiments 
were  made  upon  four  cows,  and  were  conducted  very  much  the 
same  as  the  foregoing.  The  conclusions  were  that  sugar  does 
not  increase  the  flow  of  milk,  nor  does  it  increase  the  fatty  sub- 
stances. It  was  also  shown  that  sugar  in  the  ration  has  no 
influence  upon  the  casein  and  the  percentage  of  lactose  is  not 
modified.  Mineral  salts  were  found  to  be  7  per  cent,  with  or 
without  sugar.  The  proportion  of  free  and  volatile  acids  in- 
creases in  butter  from  cows  having  received  sugar  in  moderate 
quantities.  The  fact  is,  none  of  these  experiments  can  be  con- 
sidered as  conclusive;  hence  the  importance  of  still  further  in- 
vestigation. It  is  thought  that  if  it  were  possible  to  determine 
by  a  certain  formula  the  amount  of  sugar  to  be  used  in  com- 
•  bination  with  a  well-combined  ration  very  different  results 
from  those  under  consideration  would  be  obtained,  and 
the  advantages  of  sugar  would  then  be  demonstrated;  but 
as  this  has  yet  to  be  done,  the  present  outlook  does  not  seem 
favorable  for  its  general  use  when  milk,  cream  and  butter  are 
the  objects  in  view.  On  the  other  hand,  for  fattening  purposes 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  countries  where  sugar  is  very 
cheap,  such  as  England,  a  farmer  would  find  it  to  his  advantage 
to  use  sugar  in  the  daily  rations  of  animals  being  fattened. 
Feeding  horses  As  early  as  1880  Prof.  Grandeau  commenced  a  series  of  ex- 
wrth  sugar,  periments  in  Paris  to  determine  what  sort  of  feed  was  best 
suited  for  horses,  when  at  rest  in  the  stable,  when  walking  and 
trotting,  also  when  working  slowly  and  rapidly,  etc.  All  these 
experiments,  without  an  exception,  have  led  to  the  very  im- 
portant conclusion  that  for  the  producton  of  energy  and  work 
the  most  important  element  to  be  furnished  is  an  ample  supply 
of  carbohydrates;  nitrogen  entered  the  working  ration  to  make 


FEEDING    HORSES    WITH    SUGAR. 


315 


up  for  slight  muscle  losses.  The  important  part  of  the  con- 
clusion is  that  there  is  an  actual  economy  in  the  utilization  of 
the  amylaceous  principles  of  fodders  as  compared  with  the 
nitrogenous  elements.  During  1898  experiments  were  made  to 
determine  what  influence  sugar  had  when  fed  in  different 
quantities.  The  full  details  of  the  observations  are  not  at 
hand,  but  an  outline  of  the  principal  results  is  not  without 
interest.  The  experiments  were  upon  three  horses,  as  near  the 
same  build,  age,  weight,  etc.,  as  was  possible.  All  the  urine 
and  excrements  were  collected  and  analyzed;  the  weight  of  the 
fodder  consumed  was  exactly  determined;  the  volume  of  water 
drunk  exactly  noted;  the  horses  were  weighed  several  times  a 
day.  The  quantity  of  sugar  fed  daily  varied  from  600  grams 
to  2.400  kilos  (1.32  Ibs.  to  5.4  Ibs.)  per  diem.  The  feeds  used, 
either  alone  or  combined  with  sugar,  were  hay,  oat-straw  and 
corn.  Maltine  was  the  principal  source  of  nitrogen.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  results: 

EXPERIMENTAL  KATIONS  FED  TO  HORSES  (1898). 


FEED. 

Substances  digested  per 
horse  and  per  diem. 

Digestible 
substances 
per  100 
kilos,  live 
weight. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Caloric 
value. 

Nitrogenous. 

Non-nitro- 
genous. 

Hay  (alone)  

Grams. 
263.8 

318.4 
778.1 
243.0 

Grams. 
'-',979.5 

4,298.2 
4,388.6 
5,422 

Kilos. 
7,800 

11,300 
13,100 
13,900 

1:11.3 
1:13.6 
1:5.6 
1:22.3 

Cal. 
13,429.4 

19,070.7 
21,572.6 
23.339.6 

Hay  and  sugar  
Maltine 

Corn  and  sugar  

The  practical  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  these  different 
rations  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

KESULTS  OF  KATIONS  AS  TO  WORK  AND  WEIGHT  (1898). 


FEED. 

Work  accom- 
plished. 

Water  drunk 
per  kilo  of  dry 
substance. 

Dailv  variation  in 
the  weight  of 
the  horse. 

Hav  (alone)  

Kilogratnmeter. 
230  189 

3833 

Kilos. 
—0.300 

230,497 

3,000 

-fO.120 

Maltine 

221  906 

3  900 

+0128 

Corn  and  sugar.  . 

262  920 

1  900 

—0.200 

316  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

This  data  shows  that  of  all  the  feeds  used  for  working  horses, 
hay  is  the  least  desirable  for  keeping  the  animal  in  a  normal 
condition.  The  maximum  work  was  accomplished  with  a 
ration  containing  the  smallest  percentage  of  nitrogenous  ele- 
ments (243  grams  ration  corn  and  sugar),  and  the  richest  in 
hydrocarbons,  mainly  sugar  (5.422  kilos,  or  nearly  12  Ibs. ). 
The  work  increased  with  the  caloric  value  of  the  ration,  and  the 
sugar  ration  in  every  respect  was  the  most  desirable.  An  inter- 
esting paradox  in  these  experiments,  and  to  many  it  will  be  a 
source  of  astonishment,  was  that  the  thirst  of  the  animal  did 
not  increase  with  the  quantity  of  sugar  consumed.  The  most 
work  was  accomplished  when  the  nutritive  ratio  was  only  1:22. 3, 
and  the  horse  receiving  the  largest  amount  of  nitrogenous  feed, 
accomplished  the  least. 

Difficulties  to       A  great  obstacle  found  in  the  use  of  sugar  as  a  forage  in 
contend  with  in  Europe,  up  to  the  present  time  at  least,  has  been  the  fiscal  ques- 
tion, as  both  in  Germany  and  France  the  home  taxation  of  the 
i  ceding. 

product  is  such  that  its  expense  is  too  great  for  its  general  in- 
troduction for  feeding.  On  the  part  of  these  Governments, 
there  has  always  been  a  certain  apprehension  of  the  possibility 
of  frauds  arising  from  the  withdrawal  of  the  existing  modes  of 
taxation.  It  has  been  suggested  that  sugar  be  mixed  with  ver- 
mouth powder,  also  lamp  soot  and  salt,  so  as  to  render  its 
use  for  human  consumption  impossible.  Gonnermann  has 
lately  proposed  the  denaturation  of  sugar  by  the  means  of  peat. 
The  German  government  in  1891  made  some  changes  in  the 
existing  law  and  determined  that  the  denaturated  sugar  should 
not  be  taxed  provided  it  was  made  under  the  control  of  the 
state. 


FEEDING   STANDARDS. 

Feeding  Standards.* 

A— PEE  DAY  AND  ONE  THOUSAND  POUNDS  LIVE  WEIGHT^ 


317 


Cattle  fed. 

1 

1 

* 

Digestible. 

Nutritive  ratio. 

c 

1 

PH 

Lbs. 
0.7 
1.2 
1.5 
1.6 
2.4 
1.5 
1.7 
2.3 
2.5 
2.2 
2.5 
3.0 
2.7 
3.0 
35 
5.0 
4.0 
2.7 

4.0 
3.2 
2.5 
2.0 
1.6 

3.2 
2  7 
2.1 
1.7 
1.4 

1 
&* 

c 

1§ 

*o3 

1 

Lbs. 
17.5 
20.0 
22.5 
24.0 
26.0 
20.0 
21.0 
23.0 
240 
24.5 
27.0 
26.0 
25.0 
26.0 
25.0 
36.0 
31.0 
23.5 

22.0 
23.4 
2-4.0 
24.0 
24.0 

28.0 
25.0 
23.0 
22.5 
22.0 

Lbs. 

8  3 
10.8 
12.0 
12.0 
14.3 
10.4 
11.8 
14.3 
134 
14.9 
16.1 
16.4 
16.2 
16.3 
15.8 
27.5 
24.0 
17.5 

18.3 
15.8 
14.9 
13.9 
12.7 

17.4 

14.7 
12.5 
11.8 
11.1 

Lbs. 
9.0 
12.0 
13.5 
13.6 
16.7 
11.9 
13.5 
16.6 
15.9 
17.1 
18.6 
19.4 
18.9 
19.3 
19.3 
32.5 
28.0 
20.2 

223 
19.0 
17.4 
15.9 
14.3 

20.6 
17.4 
14.6 
13.5 
12.5 

1:11.9 
1:  9.0 
1:  8.0 
1:  7.5 
:  6.0 
:  6.9 
:  6.9 
:  6.2 
:  5.4 
:  6.8 
:  6.4 
:  5.5 
:  6.0 
1:  5.4 
1:  4.5 
1:  5.5 
1:  6.0 
1:   6.5 

1:  4.6 
1:  4.9 
1:  6.0 
1:  7.0 
1:  8.0 

1:  5.4 
1:  5.4 
|  1:  6.0 
1:  7.0 
1:  8.0 

Milk  cows    Wolff's  standard  

Fattening  oxen,  preliminary  period.  .  •  • 

Fattening  oxen,  finishing  period  
Fattening  sheep,  preliminary  period  ••• 

Fattening  swine,  preliminary  period-  •  - 

Growing  cattle  : 
Average  live  weight 
Age.  Months.          per  head. 
2     3                    150  Ibs  

3  6                    300  Ibs  

6     12                 500  Ibs  

12—18                  700  Ibs.  
18-24                 850  Ibs...  

Growing  sheep  : 
56                     56  Ibs  

68                     67  Ibs  

8     11                   75  Ibs  

11—15                   82  Ibs.  •  

i  r      on                         ct;  ike. 

*  These  feeding  standards  are  taken  mainly  from  German  sources,  but  have  been 
arranged  by  Armsby,  '•  Circular  of  Information  No.  1,"  Pennsylvania  State  College. 

t  The  fattening  rations  are  calculated  for  one  thousand  pounds  live  weight  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fattening. 


318  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

B — PER  DAY  AND  HEAD. 


Digestib 

le. 

Cattle  fed. 

1 
£ 

OS 

1 

Protein. 

Carbohydrates 
and  fat. 

1 

Nutritive  ratio 

Growing  fat  pigs  : 
Average  live  weight 
Age.  Months.          per  head. 
23                      50  Ibs 

Lbs. 
42  0 

Lbs. 
7  5 

Lbs. 
30  0 

Lbs. 
37  5 

1-40 

3—5                   100  Ibs  

34  0 

5  0 

25  0 

80  0 

1-5  0 

5  —  6                   125  Ibs  

31  5 

4  3 

23  7 

28  0 

1-5  5 

6  8                   170  ibs  . 

27  0 

3  4 

20  4 

23  8 

1  .A  0 

8     12                 250  Ibs  

21  0 

2  5 

16  2 

18  7 

1-65 

Growing  cattle  : 
2     3                   150  Ibs  

3  3 

0  6 

2  8 

3  4 

1-46 

3     6                   300  Ibs  

7  0 

1  0 

4  9 

5  9 

1-49 

6     12                 500  Ibs  

12  0 

1  3 

7  5 

8  8 

1-60 

12    18                 700  Ibs  .... 

16  8 

1  4 

9  7 

Hi 

1-70 

18     24                 850  Ibs  

20  4 

1  4 

11  1 

12  5 

1-80 

Growing  sheep  : 
56                      56  Ibs  

1  6 

0  18 

0  974 

1  154 

1  .5  4 

68                     67  Ibs  

1  7 

0  18 

0  981 

1  161 

1-5  4 

8     11                   75  Ibs  

17 

0  16 

0  953 

1  113 

1-6  0 

11     15                   82  Ibs  ... 

1  8 

0  14 

0  975 

111s* 

1-70 

15     20                   85  Ibs  ... 

1  9 

0  12 

0  955 

1  075 

1.0    A 

Growing  fat  swine  : 
23                      50  Ibs  

2  1 

0  38 

1  50 

1  88 

1  -4  0 

3     5                   100  Ibs  

3  4 

0  50 

2  50 

3  00 

1-50 

5  6                     125  Ihs 

Q  Q 

0  54 

0  Ofi 

Q   £A 

1     K.    Z. 

6     8                   170  Ibs 

4  6 

0  58 

Q  47 

4  OT 

1  .«    A 

8—12                 ?50  Ibs  

5  2 

0  62 

4  05 

4  67 

1-6  5 

1 

RATIONS    FOR    FARM    ANIMALS. 


319 


Table  for  Computing  Rations  for  Farm  Animals.* 

DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS    IN   STATED    AMOUNTS   OF  THE    MORE    COMMON 
FEEDING  STUFFS. 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

Pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat  X 
2.25). 

Total. 

SOILING  FODDER. 

.20 
1.00 
3.00 
4.00 
5.00 
6.00 
7.00 
8.00 

.16 
.80 
2.40 
8.20 
4.00 
4.80 
5.60 
6.40 

.16 

.29 
1.45 
4.35 
5.80 
7.25 
8.70 
10.15 
11.60 

.28 
1.40 
4.20 
5.60 

.010 
.050 
.150 
.200 
.250 
.300 
.350 
.400 

.018 
.090 
.270 
.360 
.450 
.540 
.630 
.720 

.017 

.029 
.145 
.435 
.580 
.725 
.870 
1.015 
1.160 

.039 
.195 

.585 
.780 
.975 

.125 
.625 
1.875 
2.500 
3.125 
3.750 
4.375 
5.000 

.076 
.380 
1.140 
1.520 
1.900 
2.280 
2.660 
3.040 

.077 

.164 
.820 
2.460 
3.280 
4.100 
4.920 
5.740 
6.560 

.138 
.690 
2.070 
2.760 
3.450 

.135 
.675 
2.025 
2.700 
3.375 
4.050 
4.725 
5.400 

.094 
.470 
1.410 

1.880 
2.350 
2.820 
3.290 
3.760 

.094 

.193 

.965 
2.895 
3.860 
4.825 
5.790 
6.755 
7.720 

.177 
.885 
2.655 
3.540 
4.425 

1:12.5 
1:4.2 

1:4.5 
1:5.6 

1:3.5 

k                    5  Ibs 

'                  15    '• 

'                  20    ' 

'                  25    ;  

<                  80    '  

4                     35     ' 

"                     40     ' 

51bs  .... 
15  "  
20  "  

«                <             9=    c; 

li               4             on    « 

"               '             35    " 

4*           '         40  " 

Practically    the    same    as 
peas  and  oats. 
T?pH  rlovpr      1  Ih. 

<•-          ••         5  ibs  

«          «•       15    *•    

«          <      '-'O    u    

"          <       25    "    

*'                     <             OA       It 

K                   <            So       "       . 

"            •        40     u     . 

Alfalfa     1  Ib  

"     '      S  lh«j 

..                 1C        fci. 

t;        90    " 

"       25   "    

*  These  well  combined  tables  are  taken  from  Bulletin  154,  Cornell  University  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station,  Ithaca.  New  York.  The  arrangement  is  such  as  to  be  a 
means  of  saving  time  and  allows  a  comparison  with  standards. 


320  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS. — Continued. 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 


Alfalfa,  30  Ibs 
k-  35  " 
"  40  " 


Hungarian  grass,  lib... 
"  5  Ibs.. 
"  15 
"  20 


30 
35 
40 


Corn  silage,    lib .21 

5  Ibs    1.05 

15          3.15 

20          4.20 

25         5.25 

30          6.80 

u                 35          7.35 

40          8.40 

45          9.45 

50          10.50 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS. 

Potatoes,    1  lb 21 

5  Ibs 1.05 

15  "    3.15 

4.20 

25  "    5.25 

Beet,  mangel,    lib .09 

5  Ibs .45 

"        15   " 1.35 

20   " 1.80 

25  u 2.25 

30   " 2.70 

Beet,  sugar,    lib .13 

5  Ibs .65 

15    "    1.95 

20    "    2.60 


Total  dry 
matter. 


8.40 

9.80 

11.20 

.29 

1.45 

4.35 

5.80 

7.25 

8.70 

10.15 

11.60 


Pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients. 


Protein. 


1.170 

1.865 
1.560 

.020 
.100 
.300 
.40d 
.500 
.600 
.700 
.800 

.009 
.045 
.135 
.180 
.225 
.270 
.315 
.360 
.405 
.450 


.009 
.045 
.135 

.180 
.225 

.011 
.055 
.165 
.220 
.275 
.330 

.011 
.055 
.165 
.220 


Carbohy- 
drates -j- 
(fat  X 

2.25). 


4.140 
4.830 
5.520 

.169 
.845 
2.535 
3.380 
4.225 
5.070 
5.915 
6.760 

.129 
.645 
1.935 
2.580 
3.225 
8.870 
4.515 
5.160 
5.805 
6.450 


.165 

.825 

2.475 

3.300 

4.125 

.056 

.280 

.840 

1.120 

1.400 

1.680 

.104 

.520 

1.560 

2.080 


Total. 


5.310 
6.195 

7.080 

.189 
.945 
2.835 
3.780 
4.725 
5.670 
6.615 
7.560 

.188 
.690 
2.070 
2.760 
3.450 
4.140 
4.830 
5.520 
6.210 
6.900 


.174 

.870 
2.610 
3.480 
4.350 

.067 
.335 
1.005 
1.340 
1.675 
2.010 

.115 

.575 

1.725 

2.300 


Nutrith 
ratio. 


1:8.4 


1:14.3 


1:18.3 


1:5.1 


1:9.4 


RATIONS   FOR   FARM    ANIMALS. 
DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS. — Continued. 


321 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

Pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat  X 
2.25.) 

Total. 

3.25 
3.90 

.11 
.55 
1.65 
2.20 
2.75 
3.30 

.87 
2.61 
4.35 
6.09 
6.96 
7.83 
10.44 
13.05 
15.66 
17.40 

.87 
2.61 
4.35 
6.09 
6.96 
7.83 
10.44 
13.05 
15.66 
17.40 

.92 
2.76 
4.60 
6.44 
7.36 
8.28 
11.04 

2.75 
3.30 

.008 
.040 
.120 
.160 
.200 
.240 

.028 
.084 
.140 
.196 
.224 
.252 
.336 
.420 
.504 
.560 

.062 
.186 
.310 
.434 
.496 
.558 
.744 
.930 
1.116 
1.240 

.045 
.135 
.225 
.315 
.360 
.405 
.540 

2.600 
3.120 

.082 
.410 
1.230 
1.640 
2.050 
2.460 

.465 
1.395 
2.325 
3.255 
3.720 
4.185 
5.580 
6.975 
8.370 
9.300 

.460 
1.381 
2.300 
3.220 
3.680 
4.140 
5.520 
6.900 
8.280 
9.200 

.546 
1.638 
2.730 
3.822 
4.368 
4.914 
6.552 

2.875 
3.450 

.090 
.450 
1.350 
1.800 
2.250 
2.700 

.493 
1.479 
2.465 
3.451 
3.944 
4.437 
5.916 
7.395 
8.874 
9.860 

.522 
1.566 
2.610 
3.654 
4.176 
4.698 
6.264 
7.830 
9.396 
10.440 

.591 
1.773 
2.955 
4.137 

4.728 
5.319 
7.092 

1:10.3 
1:16.6 

1:  7.4 
1:12.1 

u            t<         on    fct 

fnrrot       1  1h 

5  iks  

15   "   . 

20   "  

25   4<  

on    "    . 

HAY  AND  STRAW. 

-              3  Ihs 

<            5  n.    . 

t            7  "    

'           ft  "    . 

4            Q  "     . 

'          12  <k    . 

4         ]5  '<    

"         18  "    

"          20   a 

Mixed  grasses  and 

«  <         3  ibs  

I'                 5      K      

«            7     u 

<;             o     u 

*'          9    " 

"        12    "    . 

'•        15    "    . 

"        18   ". 

"         90    " 

Hungarian  hav,  1  Ib.  .  .  .  • 
'"     31bs.... 
«             '       5  <k  
'      7  u  .... 
«             k       8  <€  
41             '       9  "  
«             *     12  '•  

21 


322  FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS. — Continued. 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

Pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat  X 

2.25.) 

Total. 

Red  clover  hay,  1  Ib.  
"                  31bs.... 
"                  5       .... 
7 
"                  8 
9 
12 
«                 15 
"           "     18       .... 
"    20       .... 

Alfalfa  hay     1  Ib    

.85 
2.55 
4.25 
5.95 
6.80 
7.65 
10.20 
12.75 
15.30 
17.00 

.92 
2.76 
4.60 
6.44 
7.36 
8.28 
11.04 
13.80 
16.56 
18.40 

.58 
2.90 
4.64 
6.96 
8.70 
10.44 
11.60 

.60 
3.00 
4.80 
7.20 
9.00 
10.80 
12.00 

.86 
2.58 
4.30 
6.88 
10.32 
12.90 

.068 
.204 
.340 
.476 
.544 
.612 
.816 
1.020 
1.224 
1.360 

.110 
.330 
.550 
.770 
.880 
.990 
1.320 
1.650 
1.980 
2.200 

.025 
.125 

.200 
.300 
.375 
.450 

.500 

.017 
.085 
.136 
.204 
.255 
.306 
.340 

.043 
.129 
.215 
.344 
.516 
.645 

.396 

1.188 
1.980 
•    2.772 
3.168 
3.564 
4.752 
5.940 
7.128 
7.920 

.423 

1.269 
2.115 
2.961 
3.384 
3.807 
5.076 
6.345 
7.614 
8.460 

.373 

1.865 
2.984 
4.476 
5.595 
6.714 
7.460 

.340 
1.720 
2.720 
4.080 
5.160 
6.120 
6.880 

.341 
1.023 
1.705 
2.728 
4.092 
5.115 

.464 
1.392 
2.320 
3.248 
3.712 
4.176 
5.568 
6.960 
8.352 
9.280 

.533 
1.599 
2.665 
3.731 
4.264 
4.797 
6.396 
7.995 
9.594 
10.660 

.398 
1.990 
3.184 
4.776 
5.970 
7.164 
7.960 

.357 
1.785 
2.856 
4.284 
5.355 
6.426 
7.140 

.384 
1.152 
1.920 
3.072 
4.608 
5.760 

1:  5.8 
1:  3.8 

1:14.9 
1:19.9 
1:  7.9 

"              '    3  Ibs  

"                   5 

g       

9       

12       

15       

18       

on 

"                  5  ifog   

«                 8  "  

"              12  "  

«              15  "  

"              is  "  

tc                  on    u 

a              5  Ibs  

*4                           8             

"            12       

"            15 

"              18 

u              20 

Pea-vine  straw,    1  Ib.  .  .  .  • 
3  Ibs.... 
5  "  .... 
8  "  .... 
12  u  .... 
15  "  

RATIONS    FOR    FARM    ANIMALS. 
DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIE]STTS.  —Continued. 


323 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

Pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat  X 
2.25.) 

Total. 

.90 
2.70 
4.50 
7.20 
10.80 
13.50 

.91 
2.73 
4.55 
7.28 
10.92 
13.65 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5.34 
6.23 
7.12 
8.01 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 

.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 

.004 
.012 
.020 
.032 
.04» 
.060 

.012 
.036 
.060 
.096 
.144 
.180 

.079 
.158 
.237 
.316 
.395 
.474 
.553 
.632 
.711 

.102 
.204 
.306 
.408 
.510 
.612 

.099 
.198 
.297 
.396 
.495 
.594 

.087 
.174 
.261 

.375 
1.016 
1.860 
2.976 
4.064 
5.580 

.404 
1.212 
2.020 
3.232 

4.848 
6.060 

.764 
1.528 
2.292 
3.056 
3.820 
4.584 
5.348 
6.112 
6.876 

.730 
1.460 
2.190 
2.920 
3.650 
4.380 

.700 
1.400 
2.100 
2.800 
3.500 
4.200 

.692 
1.384 
2.076 

.376 
1.128 
1.880 
3.008 
4.512 
5.640 

.416 
1.248 
2.080 
3.328 
4.992 
6.240 

.843 
1.686 
2.529 
3.372 
4.215 
5.058 
5.901 
6.744 
7.587 

.832 
1.664 
2.496 
3.328 
4.160 
4.992 

.799 
1.598 
2.397 
3.196 
3.995 
4.794 

.779 
1.558 
2.337 

1:93. 
1:33.6 

1:9.7 

1:7.2 
1:7.1 
1:7.9 

3  Ibs 

5  "   

g  "  

12  "  

i  -    u 

»            3  Ibs      

1            5   "    . 

<            g  "   

'             -to    u 

<             -i  -    t; 

GRAIN. 

kt                      2  Ibs 

u                      q 

'•                   4 

"                    5 

g         

"                  7         

"                     8 

"                            Q 

Wheat      1  Ib  

"    '    2  Ib^  

i<           q    <t 

«        4   <-    

*»        5   "    

44                  ft        « 

RVP      1   Ib 

K.           O  Jbs        

"          q    t4    

K        4   « 

"        5  "  

"        fi   "  . 

"Rarlpv      1  Ib   . 

<«            2  Ibs    

<;          3    <4  

324  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS. — Continued. 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

Pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat  X 

2.25). 

Total. 

Barley  4  Ibs  

3.56 
4.45 
5.34 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5.34 
6.23 
7.12 
8.01 
10.68 
13.35 

.87 
1.74 
2.61 
3.48 
4.35 
5.22 
6.09 
6.96 
7.83 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
450 
5.40 
6.30 
7.20 
8.10 

.85 
1.70 
2.55 
3.40 
4.25 

.348 
.435 
.522 

.092 
.184 
.276 
.368 
.460 
.552 
.644 
.736 
.828 
1.104 
1.380 

.077 
.154 
.231 

.308 
.385 
.462 
.539 
.616 
.693 

.168 
.336 
.504 
.672 
.840 
1.008 
1.176 
1.344 
1.512 

.044 

.088 
.132 
.176 
.220 

2.768 
3.460 
4.152 

.568 
1.136 
1.704 
2.272 
2.840 
3.408 
3.976 
4.544 
5.112 
'6.816 
8.520 

.533 
1.066 
1.599 
2.132 
2.665 
3.198 
3.731 
4.264 
4.797 

.534 
1.068 
1.602 
2.136 
2.670 
3.204 
3.738 
4.272 
4.806 

.665 
1.330 
1.995 
2.660 
3.325 

3.116 
3.895' 
4.674 

.660 
1.320 
1.980 
2.640 
3.300 
3.960 
4.620 
5.280 
5.940 
7.920 
9.900 

.610 
1.220 
1.830 
2.440 
3.050 
3.660 
4.270 
4.880 
5.490 

.702 
1.404 
2.106 
2.808 
3.510 
4.212 
4.914 
5.616 
6.318 

.709 
1.418 
2.127 

2.&S6 
3.545 

1:  6.2 

1:  6.9 
1:  3.2 

1:15.1 

"      '  5  l' 

"         6  u  .... 

Oats     1  Ib  

"         2  Ibs  

"        3  "  

«        4       

"          c; 

"          fi 

<•         7       

K                £             

"        9       

"       12       

"      15    '  

'Rnpltwheflt    1  Ib 

2  Ibs 

3 

4 

5                ... 

g         

7       

8       

9       

Peas     1  Ib  

"•        •>  Ibs. 

"        S 

"•       4       

"        5       

"        g       

«        7       

"        8 

"            Q 

MILL  PRODUCTS. 

Corn  and  cob  meal,  1  Ib.  •  • 
2  Ibs.. 
"             "          3  k<  .. 

«             tt          4  "  . 

"             "          5  "  .. 

RATIONS    FOR    FARM    ANIMALS. 
DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS. — Continued. 


325 


Pounds  of  digestible 

nutrients. 

Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

Carbohy- 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Protein. 

drates  -f 
(fat  X 

Total. 

2.25). 

Corn  and  cob  meal,  6  Ibs  .  . 

5.10 

.264 

3.990 

4.254 

tk             «          7  K  .  . 

5.95 

.308 

4.655 

4.963 

u                a             o   a 
o         •  • 

6.80 

.352 

5.320 

5.672 

<(                         U                    Q     (( 

tf              •  » 

7.65 

.396 

5.985 

6.381 

"                          "                12     " 

10.20 

.528 

7.980 

8.508 

Wheat  bran    1  Ib  

.88 

199 

.453 

.575 

1:3.7 

'•                  2  Ibs  

1  76 

•  1  —  — 

244 

^906 

1.150 

"                  3 

1  .  1  w 

9  fi4 

•  £fx?x. 
3fifi 

1  359 

1.725 

"                 4      

9»w 
3.52 

•  ODO 

.488 

J.»  OUt7 

1.812 

2.300 

"                  5       

4  40 

«1A 

9  Ofin 

2.875 

i<                  6       

Ti.^U 
K    9« 

.O  1  VF 
7Q9 

—  .  —'  >•  ) 

2.718 

3.450 

«                  7       

<J»^O 

fi  16 

•  1  O^j 

854 

3.171 

4.025 

"                  fi 

U.  1  \J 

7  ft4 

•  O^x 

97fi 

3*fi94 

4  fiflO 

"                    Q 

i  .Ut 
7  Q9 

/  D 

1  OQ8 

O.  \J±*~T 

A  077 

^.  uuu 
5  175 

Wheat  middlings,  1  Ib  .  .  •  . 

I  .  <7  — 

.88 

J.UJ7O 

.128 

^»  Ul  * 

.607 

t/«  1  4  t  J 

.735 

1:4.7 

2  Ibs... 

1.76 

.256 

1.214 

1.470 

«                            (k                          O     kk 

2.64 

.384 

1.821 

2.205 

"            u           4  "... 

3.52 

.512 

2.428 

2.940 

"            u            5    ;  ... 

4.40 

.640 

3.035 

3.675 

"            "            6    '  ... 

5.28 

.768 

3.642 

4.410 

u            a            7    '  .  .  . 

6.16 

.896 

4.249 

5.145 

"             "            8    l  ... 

7.04 

1.024 

4.856 

5.880 

"            "           9    *  ... 

7.92 

1.152 

5.463 

6.615 

Dark  feeding  flour,  1  Ib  «  • 

.90 

.135 

.658 

.793 

1:4.9 

2  Ibs.. 

1.80 

.270 

1.316 

1.586 

3  kt  .. 

2.70 

.405 

1.974 

2.379 

"            u             4  u 

3.60 

.540 

2.632 

3.172 

"            **             5  u  •• 

4.50 

.675 

3.290 

3.965 

"            "             6  "  •- 

5.40 

.810 

3.948 

4.758 

(k                      ((                        IT     H     >  | 

6.30 

.945 

4.606 

5.551 

"                "                  s   "    • 

7.20 

1.080 

5.264 

6.344 

"              "                Q   " 

8.10 

1.215 

5.922 

7.137 

Low  grade  flour,  1  Ib  .... 

.88 

.082 

.647 

.729 

1:7.9 

l'        "      21bs.... 

1.76 

.164 

1.294 

1.458 

(                  kk                11             0      kk 

O           .... 

2.64 

.246 

1.941 

2.187 

(          u         (i       4    •• 

3.52 

.328 

2.588 

2.916 

k                   k  <               k  k             C      (  ( 

4.40 

.410 

3.235 

3.645 

5.28 

.492 

3.882 

4.374 

326  FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS. — Continued. 


Pounds  of  digestible 

nutrients. 

Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

Carbohy- 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Protein. 

drates  -)- 
(fatX 

Total. 

• 

2.25). 

Low  grade  flour,  7  Ibs  

6.16 

.574 

4.529 

5.103 

«        «         g    u    .... 

7.04 

.656 

5.176 

5.832 

n        u         9    u    .... 

7.92 

.738 

5.823 

6.561 

Rye  bran   1  Ib    

.88 

.115 

.548 

.663 

1:4.8 

«          2  Ibs  

1.76 

.230 

i  ftQrt 

1.326 

(          3    " 

2fi4 

34^            1  fi44 

1  QSQ 

<          4   «       .... 

.  O^r 

q  ^9 

.O^rO                 J-.D^Tc 
4fiO                O  1QO 

x  .  i/oy 
9  fi^9 

<          5    «  

O.  '  >  — 

440 

.T:OU 
fWK 

2740 

A«  '  '•  '  — 
Q  QI  f; 

<          g   "  

.  ^tU 

r;  OQ 

•  tJ  i  O 

fiQO 

•  /  T:U 
Q  00  Q 

O.  O.LO 

Q  Q78 

<          7    «  

O.  ^O 

fi  Ifi 

.Ut/17 
ftAR 

O.  ZrOO 

Q  QQfi 

O»  «7  /  O 

4  fi41 

<          g    «  

U.  J.U 

7  04 

.  ouo 
Q90 

o.oou 

4  QQ4 

T:.  U^tX 

5  ^04 

<          9   «  

/  •  UT: 

7  Q2 

•  t/ZiV 

i  o^'S 

Tt.OOTT 

4  Q52 

fJ.OvT: 

5  Qfi7 

Buckwheat  bran,  1  Ib  

1  .  J  — 

.90 

J-.  V/OO 

.074 

T:.  i/fj^i 

.347 

«J.  i/U  i 

.421 

1:4.7 

"            "      2  Ibs..... 

1.80 

.148 

.694 

.842 

"            "      3 

270 

.222 

1.041 

1.263 

U                        «            A 

3.60 

.296 

1.388 

1.684 

"            "      5        

4.50 

.370 

1.735 

2.105 

«            «      6        

5.40 

.444 

2.082 

2.526 

«            «      7 

6.30 

.518 

2.429 

2.847 

"            "      8        

7.20 

.592 

2776 

3.368 

"            "      9        

8.10 

.666 

3.123 

3.789 

Buckwheat  middlings,  1  Ib. 

.87 

.220 

.456 

.676 

1:2.1 

2  Ibs. 

1.74 

.440 

.912 

1.352 

3 

2.61 

.660 

1.368 

2.028 

4 

3.48 

.880 

1.824 

2.704 

5 

4.35 

1.100 

2.280 

3.380 

6 

5.22 

1.320 

2.736 

4.056 

"            7 

6.09 

1.540 

3.192 

4.732 

"            8 

6.96 

1.760 

3.648 

5.408 

"            "            9 

7.83 

1.980 

4.104 

6.084 

BY-PRODUCTS. 

Malt  sprouts   1  Ib    • 

.90 

.186 

.409 

.595 

1:2.2 

"             2  Ibs  

1.80 

.372 

.818 

1.190 

"             3    "   ...     . 

o  70 

K.K.Q 

1  997 

i  70  c; 

u             ^   « 

4W«  I  V 

Q   fiO 

.OOO 

744 

_L.  ___  / 
1    fi^fi 

A.  i  oO 
9  ^SO 

"             5    "  

O  ,UV/ 

4.50 

•  /  T^ 

QQO 

-L.  UOl) 

9  04^ 

—  .  OoU 

9  Q7^ 

u             6   " 

5^40 

•  t/Ow 

1.116 

fh  V/TCtJ 

2.454 

^.  i/  /  O 

3.570 

RATIONS    FOR    FARM    ANIMALS. 
DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS. — Continued. 


327 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

Pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates -f- 
(fat  X 
2.26). 

Total. 

Malt    Snrnnts     7  lh<? 

6.30 
7.20 
8.10 

.24 
.48 
.72 
.96 
1.20 
1.44 
1.68 
1.92 
2.16 
2.64 
2.88 
3.60 

.92 
1.84 
2.76 
3.68 
4.60 
5.52 
6.44 
7.36 
8.28 

.92 
1.84 
2.76   ' 
3.68 
4.60 
5.52 
6.44 
7.36 

.92 
1.84 
2.76 
3.68 
4.60 
5.52 

1.302 

1.488 
1.674 

.039 
.078 
.117 
.156 
.195 
.234 
.273 
.312 
.351 
.429 
.468 
.585 

.157 
.314 
.471 
.628 
.785 
.942 
1.099 
1.256 
1.413 

.194 
.388 
.582 
.776 
.970 
1.164 
1.358 
1.552 

.258 
.516 
.774 
1.032 
1.290 
1.548 

2.863 
3.272 
3.681 

.125 
.250 
.375 
.500 
.625 
.750 
.875 
1.000 
1.125 
1.375 
1.500 
1.875 

.478 
.956 
1.434 
1.912 
2.390 
2.868 
3.346 
3824 
4.302 

.633 
1.266 
1.899 
2.532 
3.165 
3.798 
4.431 
5.064 

.656 
1.312 
1.968 
2.624 
3.280 
3.936 

4.165 
4.760 
5.355 

.164 
.328 
.492 
.656 
.820 
.984 
1.148 
1.312 
1.476 
1.804 
1.968 
2.460 

.635 
1.270 
1.905 
2.540 
3.175 
3.810 
4.445 
5.080 
5.715 

.827 
1.654 
2.481 
3.308 
4.135 
4.962 
5.789 
6.616 

.914 

1.828 
2.742 
3.656 
4.570 
5.484 

1:3.2 

1:3 

1:3.3 
1:2.5 

«               g     « 

it                          Q        « 

Brewer's  grains,  wet,    1  Ib. 

"       21bs. 

<                «       3    « 

<                «       4    < 
1               "       5    ' 
'               "      6    ' 

«                                «             <7        ( 

1                                «             g        I 

«      9    « 

"     11    ' 
«               «     12    < 

'              "    15  " 

Brewer'  s  grains,  dry,    1  Ib. 
"       21bs. 

4                                «              3        « 

"       4    ' 
"      5    « 
<               "       6    ' 

<                       «<          n      I 

1               "      8    ' 

"         9      ; 

Gluten  feed       1  Ib  

"              9  Jbs 

"             3    ««  

<               4   "   . 

5    "   . 

<               6    «  

«               7    "     

1               8    "   

Gluten  meal     1  Ib  

»              2  Ibs  

««              3   «<  

«              4    « 

"              5    «<  

«              g    <'  

328  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS. — Continued. 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

Pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat  X 

2.24). 

Total. 

Gluten  meal    7  lbs«  ..... 

6.44 
7.36 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5.34 
6.23 
7.12 
8.01 

.91 
1.82 
2.73 
3.64 
4.55 
5.46 
637 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 

.92 
1.84 
2.76 
3.68 
4.60 
5.52 
6.44 
7.36 
8.28 

.15 
.75 

1.806 
2.064 

.075 
.150 
.225 
.300 
.375 
.450 
.525 
.600 
.675 

.293 

.586 
.879 
1.172 
1.465 
1.758 
2.051 

.282 
.564 
.846 
1.128 
1.410 
1.692 
1.974 

.372 
.744 
1.116 

1.488 
1.860 
2.232 
2.604 
2.976 
3.348 

.018 
.090 

4592 
5.248 

.705 
1.410 
2.115 
2.820 
3.525 
4.230 
4.935 
5.640 
6  345 

.485 
.970 
1.455 
1.940 
2.425 
2910 
3.395 

.464 

.928 
1.392 
1.856 
2.320 
2.784 
3.248 

.444 

.888 
1.332 
1.776 
2.220 
2.664 
3.008 
3.552 
3.996 

.091 
.455 

6.398 
7.312 

.780 
1.560 
2.340 
3.120 
3.900 
4.680 
5.460 
6.240 
7.020 

.778 
1.556 
2.334 
3.112 
3.890 
4.668 
5.446 

.746 
1.492 

2.238 
2984 
3.730 
4.476 
5.232 

.816 
1.632 
2.448 
3.264 
4.080 
4.896 
5.712 
6528 
7.344 

.109 
.545 

1:9.4 

1:1.7 
1:1.6 
1:1.2 

1:5.1 

"            8  "  

'            '  2  Ibs 

3  "• 

4  "  . 

5  "... 

6  "  

7  "  

8  u  

9  "  

Linseed  meal 

"       "           9  Ibs 

t  <        it           '•>    " 

u        ti           4    a 

"        "          5   "   .. 

"        "           6   "  

l<           It                7     « 

Linseed  meal 
(new  process)  lib  

"      "       '2  Ibs  

«      "        3    <  

it      it         4    t 

"      "         5    '  . 

"      "         6    '  . 

«       u          7     < 

Cotton-seed  meal,  1  Ib.  •  .  . 
2  Ibs... 
3       ... 
4       ... 
"                      5       ... 
"                     6       ... 
7      ... 
"            "        8       ... 
u    •         n        g 

MISCELLANEOUS. 
Cabbage    1  Ib  

"          5  Ibs  

RATIONS    FOR    FARM    ANIMALS. 
DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS. — Continued. 


329 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

Pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates -f 
(fatX 
2.25). 

Total. 

Cabbage  15  Ibs  

2.25 
3.00 
3.75 
4.50 
5  25 
6.00 

.12 
.60 
1.80 
2.40 
3.00 
3.60 
4.20 
4.80 

.10 
.50 
1.50 
2.00 
5.20 
3.00 
3.50 
400 

.79 
1.58 
2.37 
3.16 
395 
4.74 
5.53 
6.32 
7.11 

.233 
1.165 
3495 
4.660 
5.825 
6.990 

.270 
.360 
.450 
.540 
.630 
.720 

.017 
.085 
.255 
.340 
.425 
.510 
.595 
.680 

.006 
.030 
.090 
.120 
.150 
.180 
.210 
.240 

.091 
.182 
.273 
.364 
.455 
.546 
.637 
.728 
.819 

.011 
.055 
.165 
.220 
.275 
.330 

1.365 
1.820 
2.275 
2.730 
3.185 
3.640 

.051 
.255 
.765 
1.020 
1.275 
1.530 
1.785 
2040 

.073 
.365 
1.095 
1.460 
1.825 
2190 
2555 
2.920 

.595 
1.190 
1.785 
2.380 
2.975 
3.570 
4165 
4.760 
5.355 

.164 
.820 
2.460 
3280 
4.100 
4.920 

1.635 
2.180 
2.725 
3.270 
3.815 
4.360 

.068 
.340 
1.020 
1.360 
1.700 
2.040 
2.380 
2.720 

.079 
.395 
1.185 
1.580 
1.975 
2.370 
2.765 
3.160 

.696 
1.372 
2.058 
2.744 
3.430 
4116 
4.802 
5.488 
6.174 

.175 
.875 
2.625 
3.500 
4.375 
5.250 

1:3 
1:12 
1:6.5 

1:14.9 

"      '  20  k<  

"         25  "  

"         30  "      .... 

"        35  "  

"        40  "  

Sugar  beet  leaves,  1  Ib.  .  .  . 
k<        5  Ibs... 
"      15  '    ... 
"             "      20  '    ... 
"            c<      25  *    .  .. 
"             "      30  '    ... 
"            "      35  *    ... 
"            "      40  "  ... 

Sugar  beet  pulp.  1  Ib.    ... 
'•      5  Ibs  ... 
"    15  "     ... 
"             "    20  "    ... 
"            *'    25  "    ... 

it                u     20  '* 

"             "    35  "    ... 
"            lt    40  "    ... 

"                    2  Ibs  

'<                   3       

"                   4       

»*                    5       

"                    6 

"                    7       

'<                    g       

«                                        Q      « 

"            "      15  "  

<  <            <  <      20  " 

"      25  "  ..... 

U                          .  .            OA     .  - 

oU          •  •  •  *  • 

330  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTEIENTS. — Concluded. 


Pounds  of  digestible 

nutrients. 

Kind  and  amount  of  feed. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

Carbohy- 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Protein. 

drates  + 
(fat  X 

Total. 

2.25). 

Apple  pomace  35  Ibs  

8.155 
9.320 

.385 
.440 

5.740 
6.560 

6.125 

7.000 

«             a         40   " 

Skim  milk  gravity,    1  Ib. 
'          51bs.. 

.096 
.480 

.031 
.155 

.065 
.325 

.096 

;480 

1:2.1 

"               '          8 

.768 

.248 

.520 

.768 

"                '        12 

1.152 

.372 

.780 

1.152 

15 

1.440 

.465 

.975 

1.440 

20 

1.920 

.620 

1.300 

1.920 

25 

2.400 

.775 

tl.625 

2.400 

30 

2.880 

.930 

1.950 

2.880 

Skim  milk  centrifugal,  1  Ib  • 
"                 '             5  Ibs. 

.094 
.470 

.029 
.145 

.059 
.295 

.088 
.440 

1:2 

"                '             8 

.752 

.232 

.472 

.704 

"                '           12 

1.128 

.348 

.708 

1.056 

15       . 

1.410 

.435 

.885 

1.320 

20      . 

1.880 

.580 

1.180 

1.760 

25       . 

2.350 

.725 

1.475 

2.200 

30       . 

2.820 

.870 

1.770 

2.620 

Buttermilk     1  Ib 

10 

.039 

.065 

.104 

1:1.7 

"              5  Ibs 

•  J.  V 

.50 

!l95 

'.325 

.520 

«             8    " 

Iso 

^312 

'.520 

]8"32 

11           12    "... 

1/20 

^468 

^780 

L248 

«            15    "     

1.50 

!585 

!975 

1.560 

«            20    "    

2^00 

.780 

L300 

2^080 

"            25    "     

2^50 

.975 

L625 

2.600 

U                     OA      t( 

Q  00 

1  170 

1.950 

3.120 

O«  \J\J 

PART  SIXTH. 


Definitions  and  Technical  Considerations. 

Albuminoids.  The  albuminoids  belong  to  the  so-called  protein  classi- 
fication, which  exists  in  many  forms,  such  as  gluten,  vegetable  albumins,  etc. 
As  their  name  indicates,  they  resemble  in  composition  the  white  of  egg. 
When  in  a  soluble  form,  they  may  be  rendered  insoluble  through  the  action 
of  heat.  There  follows  a  coagulation.  Albuminoids  are  made  up  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  with  a  small  amount  of  sulphur.  There  is  a 
great  variation  of  these  elements  in  the  different  forms  in  which  the  albumin- 
oids are  found.  In  the  case  of  nitrogen,  it  is  supposed  that  16  per  cent,  is 
about  an  average,  hence  it  is  customary  to  multiply  the  percentage  of  nitrogen 
found  by  analysis  by  6.25;  this  is  only  an  approximation,  but  is  accepted. 
The  word  albuminoids  is  another  term  for  complex  protein.  As  these  consti- 
tute the  muscles,  etc.,  they  play  a  most  important  role  in  animal  feeding,  and 
while  they  can  in  a  measure  take  the  place  of  the  non-nitrogenous,  the  latter 
cannot  play  a  similar  role.  The  greater  their  percentage  in  a  fodder,  the 
greater  will  be  the  feeding  value  of  the  product.  At  present,  it  is  generally 
accepted  that  fat  may  be  formed  from  albuminoids.  Experiments  show,  that 
the  greater  the  increase  of  weight  in  animal  feeding,  the  greater  must  be  the 
quantity  of  albuminoids  furnished. 

Acidity.     The  property  of  being  acid,  an  excess  of  acid. 

Albumin.  The  white  of  an  egg  is  composed  largely  of  albumin;  it  is  a 
proteid  and  is  the  main  constituent  of  the  body:  there  are  several  varieties, 
their  names  depending  upon  their  source,  such  as  serum  albumin,  vegetable 
albumin. 

Alkali.  A  substance  caustic  to  the  taste  and  which  will  neutralize  acids 
and  blue  litmus  paper. 

Alkaline.     Having  the  properties  of  or  relating  to  alkali. 

Alimentary  canal.  This  taken  as  a  whole  includes  the  stomach, 
intestines,  etc.,  through  which  food  passes  during  the  process  of  assimilation. 

Alkaloids  are  vegetable  principles  having  alkaline  properties.  They 
do  not  actively  enter  into  the  question  of  fodders,  lupine,  however,  being  an 
exception. 

Amids.  Owing  to  their  solubility,  amids  readily  pass  through  the  cells 
of  plant  tissues  and  thus  furnish  the  nitrogenous  substance  of  which  they  con- 
sist; they  are  oxidized  just  as  are  other  nutrients. 

(331) 


332  FEEDING   WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

The  determination  of  amids  in  fodders  is  rather  complicated,  and  would 
take  us  beyond  the  general  scope  of  this  present  writing.  During  the  early 
history  of  feeding  animals,  very  little  attention  was  given  to  amids,  yet  it  was 
freely  admitted  that  there  was  some  .substance  in  the  nitrogenous  part  of  foods 
that  was  not  protein  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term.  The  experiments  of 
Schultzen  and  Rencki,  etc. ,  appear  to  show  just  what  role  the  amides  play 
during  assimilation.  The  conclusion  one  can  draw  from  the  result  of  their  in- 
vestigations is  not  entirely  satisfactory;  however,  in  the  case  of  asparagin,  the 
resulting  gain  was  pronounced. 

Anhydrous  means  free  from  water. 

Anhydrous  sulphuric  acid  means  sulphuric  acid  free  from  water. 

Ash.  If  a  fodder  is  burned  until  the  entire  organic  matter  has  disap- 
peared, certain  precautions  are  necessary  in  order  that  volatilization  of  the 
chlorids,  etc.,  may  be  avoided.  The  substance  or  residue  remaining  is  called 
ash;  it  is  made  up  mainly  of  potash,  soda,  lime,  iron,  sulphuric,  carbonic  and 
phosphoric  acids.  In  certain  cases,  however,  it  is  found  desirable  when  feed- 
ing young  animals,  to  add  wood  ashes,  precipitated  chalk  and  phosphate  of 
lime  to  the  ration.  The  ash  percentage  varies  very  considerably;  for  example, 
in  pasture  grass  it  is  2.5  per  cer.t.,  while  red  clover  hay  may  contain  6.2  per 
cent.  This  latter  percentage  is  misleading  for  various  reasons.  The  ash  of 
beets,  beet  residuum,  etc.,  varies  with  the  methods  of  cultivation  of  the  roots 
and  the  modes  of  manufacture  at  the  factory. 

As  the  ash  of  a  fodder  is  made  up  of  most  of  the  ingredients  of  the  animal's 
body,  it  has  a  very  important  role  to  play  in  feeding  in  general.  Feeding 
stuffs  upon  general  principles  all  contain  an  ample  supply  of  mineral  sub 
stances — there  need  be  no  apprehension  of  their  quantity  being  deficient.  In 
rational  farming,  when  the  fertilizers  are  judiciously  used,  the  percentage  of 
mineral  salts  fed  to  be  found  subsequently  in  the  excrements  is  of  more  than 
usual  importance.  Upon  general  principles,  it  may  be  admitted  that  over  80 
per  cent,  of  these  salts  are  found  in  the  solid  and  liquid  excrements.  There 
is  excreted  in  the  urine  nearly  the  entire  amount  of  sulphuric  acid  and  chlorin 
contained  in  the  fodder;  while  in  the  case  of  lime,  2  to  5  per  cent,  is  found  in 
the  urine;  with  magnesia  only  0.25  per  cent,  is  thus  thrown  off. 

Asparagin  is  an  alkaloid  found  in  seeds  of  certain  plants,  also  in  aspar- 
agus, sugar-beets,  etc.  It  is  an  amid  of  aspartic  acid. 

Assimilation.  The  terms  "assimilation"  and  " digestion "  are  very 
much  the  same;  the  process  consists  in  taking  up  from  the  feeds  the  nutrients 
that  may  be  employed  to  make  up  for  the  wear  and  tear  and  form  new  tissue. 

Bacteria  is  synonymous  with  microbes;  they  may  be  in  straight  rods  or 
twisted  rods,  etc.,  they  may  be  either  dependent  upon  free  oxygen,  or,  as  in 
plants,  may  appropriate  the  oxygen  of  the  organic  combinations  and  thus  act 
as  a  putrefactive  agent. 

Betain.  This  substance  is  a  special  form  of  amid;  the  product  contains 
about  11  per  cent,  nitrogen;  it  disappears  apparently  during  the  second  year's 
growth  of  the  beet. 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.         333 

Bolus.  The  food  before  being  swallowed  by  many  animals  is  arranged 
by  the  tongue,  etc.,  into  a  rounded  ball,  known  as  a  bolus. 

Brewers'  grains,  on  account  of  the  percentage  of  asparagin  they  con- 
tain, give  to  milk  a  flavor  very  like  that  noticeable  after  eating  asparagus. 

Calcic  carbonate  is  another  name  for  carbonate  of  lime. 

Calcic  phosphate  is  another  name  for  lime  phosphate. 

Calorie.  A  unit  of  heat,  being  the  amount  necessary  to  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  one  kilogram  of  water  one  degree  Centigrade.  (Or  one  pound  of 
water  4°  F.) 

Carbohydrates.  These  include  first  the  so-called  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tracts, such  as  starch,  sugar,  gum,  etc.,  second  the  woody  portion  of  plants. 
The  word  carbohydrates  indicates  that  these  bodies  contain,  besides  carbon,  a 
certain  amount  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  in  the  proportions  in  which  they  com- 
bine in  water.  The  first  series  are  readily  digested,  the  second  very  much  less 
so.  Carbohydrates  play  a  very  important  role  in  cattle  feeding;  when  fed  they 
are  not  stored,  but  are  either  burned  or  converted  into  fat.  As  they  serve  the 
same  purpose  they  are  grouped  with  it,  and  hence  it  is  customary  to  multiply 
the  quantity  of  fat  by  2.25.  which  is  then  added  to  the  carbohydrates.  When 
carbohydrates  are  fed  alone,  they  do  not  appear  to  affect  the  protein  consump- 
tion, consequently  their  action  may  be  compared  with  -at  as  far  as  their  influ- 
ence on  protein  is  concerned;  without  food  the  protein  waste  is  iust  the  same 
as  it  is  with  carbohydrates. 

Carbon  is  a  non-metal  and  occurs  in  various  forms,  such  as  diamond, 
graphite,  etc. 

Carbonates.     Carbonic  acid  combines  with  alkalies  to  form  carbonates. 

Carbonate  of  lime  is  a  substance  formed  by  the  combination  of  lime 
with  carbonic  acid. 

Carbonatation  is  one  of  the  operations  in  beet-sugar  manufacture;  it 
has  for  its  object  the  liberating  of  the  sugar  from  its  combination  with  lime. 
by  the  use  of  carbonic  acid,  which  forms  a  precipitate  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
subsequently  separated  by  filtration. 

Carbonize.  When  organic  substances  are  submitted  to  heat  and  the 
volatile  substances  are  driven  off,  they  are  carbonized. 

Carbonic  acid.  When  carbon  is  burned  in  the  air,  there  is  formed 
carbonic  acid. 

Carnivorous.     The  flesh-eating  animals  are  known  as  carnivorous. 

Casein  is  a  substance  contained  in  milk;  it  is  not  coagulated  by  boiling, 
and  is  separated  by  precipitation  witli  acids  and  by  rennet  at  40°  C. 

Cellular  tissue  is  composed  of  rounded  cells  of  plants;  the  tissue  itself 
is  an  aggregate  of  cells  which  are  governed  by  a  law  of  growth. 

Cellulose.  Cellulose  is  made  up  of  6  parts  carbon,  10  parts  hydrogen, 
and  o  parts  oxygen,  and  has  the  formula  C6H10O5,  which  makes  up  the  cell 


334  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAK,  ETC. 

tissue  of  plants  in  general.  Linen  that  has  been  frequently  washed  and  is  old, 
is  made  up  of  almost  pure  cellulose.  The  digestibility  of  this  product  was  for 
a  long  time  refuted,  but  it  is  now  proved  that  it  undergoes  a  decided  fermenta- 
tion in  the  paunch  of  ruminants.  During  this  period,  there  is  formed  33.5 
carbonic  acid,  5.7  protocarbide  of  hydrogen,  33.6  acetic  acid,  and  33.6  butyric 
acid.  If  one  make  allowance  for  the  nourishing  value  of  acetic  and  butyric 
acids,  it  may  be  concluded  that  cellulose  has  a  decided  nutritive  value,  and 
some  say  that  50  per  cent,  of  the  weight  may  be  considered  digestible.  To 
determine  the  insoluble  cellulose  percentage  in  a  fodder,  it  is  customary  in 
most  laboratories  to  finely  divide  the  product,  and  to  subsequently  boil  with 
dilute  acid  and  alkali,  this  to  be  thoroughly  washed  in  alcohol  and  ether; 
there  remains  a  certain  percentage  of  albuminoids  which  must  be  deducted, 
and  what  remains  is  called  crude  fibre.  (See  Digestibility. ) 

Centigrade  degrees  are  equal  to  5.9  Fahrenheit  degrees,  to  which 
are  added  32°  in  converting  a  Centigrade  into  a  Fahrenheit  reading. 

Cereal  wastes  include  bran,  wheat  middlings,  etc. 

Chlorids.     Hydrochloric  acid  combines  with  alkalies  to  form  chlorids. 

Chlorophyl  is  the  coloring  substance  contained  in  all  green  plants ; 
through  its  agency  carbohydrates  are  formed. 

Chyle  is  a  whitish  fluid,  accumulated  during  digestion,  and  which,  when 
allowed  to  stand,  separates  and  becomes  a  substance  very  like  serum. 

ClOTers  offer  certain  advantages  over  grasses  and  hay  for  they  contain 
nearly  twice  as  much  protein  as  the  latter;  in  other  respects  the  composition 
is  about  the  same.  There  are  many  varieties  of  clover,  the  most  desirable 
being  the  white  clover. 

Coagulate.     To  coagulate  means  the  formation  of  a  coagulum  or  clot. 

Coefficient  of  digestibility  and  nutritive  relations. 
Upon  general  principles  it  may  be  admitted  that  the  value  of  a  ration  depends 
upon  its  digestibility. 

Wolff,  many  years  since,  demonstrated  that  there  is  a  relation  between  the 
amount  digested  and  the  actual  composition  of  a  fodder.  Whatever  be  the 
formulae  given,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  they  are  only  approximate  and 
are  to  be  accepted  only  as  guides  in  the  feeding.  There  are  too  many  factors 
in  the  problem  of  cattle-feeding  to  permit  a  combination  that  would  apply  to 
all  cases  that  might  occur.  If  the  more  salient  ones  only  are  considered, 
these  are  more  than  counterbalanced  by  those  whose  influence  upon  the 
general  laws  relating  to  assimilation  there  can  be  no  possible  means  of 
determining.  The  problem  as  it  stands  consequently  consists  of  a  practical 
and  theoretical  side,  the  one  based  upon  observation  of  the  chemist  in  his 
laboratory,  the  other  being  the  results  obtained  by  the  breeder  on  the  farm. 
The  farmer  has  his  capital  at  stake  and  he  is  the  one  to  suffer  when  mistakes 
are  made.  Consequently,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  practical  observation 
upon  cattle-feeding,  which  may  differ  with  each  individual,  has  a  money  value 
very  much  greater  than  is  possible  to  obtain  by  adhering  to  any  theoretical 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.         335 

consideration;  however,  as  far  as  possible,  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  general 
knowledge  of  both  sides  of  the  question  which  will  permit  new  fields  of  investi- 
gation with  fodders  of  which  a  farmer  has  had  no  previous  experience. 
The  early  formula  generally  adopted  was : 

c  £  _         Protein  -f  Fat  -4-  Nitrogen  Free  Extract 

Protein  +  Fibre  -f  Fat  -f  Kitrogen  Free  Extract 

Protein  -j-  Fat  -f  Nitrogen  Free  Extract 
Organic  Substances. 

But  the  organic  substances  are  represented  by  dry  matter  less  ash.  Conse- 
quently the  formula  reads: 

c  £>  =  Total  Protein  +  Fat  +  Nitrogen  Free  Extract. 
Dry  matter — Ash. 

If  applied  to  meadow  hay  for  example : 

c  D  _  8.5  +  3.0  +  38.3 
85.7—6.02 

Calculations  based  upon  this  formula  give  the  following  coefficients:  hay 
=  0.60;  straw  =  0.40;  husks  =  0.50. 

If  it  is  desirable  to  replace  a  portion  of  hay  by  straw  in  a  ration,  owing  to 
special  circumstances  of  the  market,  the  amount  of  straw  to  be  used  may  be 
estimated  by  considering  the  coefficient  of  digestibility  of  the  two  fodders,  hay 
(0.60)  — straw  (0.40)  =  0.20,  which  means  that  20  per  cent,  more  straw  must 
be  used  to  get  the  same  effect  as  would  have  been  realized  with  i  less  hay. 
This  is  an  excellent  practical  example  of  how  a  farmer  can  meet  existing  con- 
ditions. The  nutritive  relations  of  a  ration  should  also  be  considered  as  it 
has  an  important  influence;  while  this  may  be  considered  as  a  relative  diges- 
tibility, the  absolute  digestibility  depends  upon  various  causes.  Between 
these  terms  there  exist  frequent  confusions.  Two  fodders,  oats  and  hay  for 
example,  may  have  the  same  absolute  digestibility,  but  not  the  same  value  for 
feeding  unless  their  relative  digestibility  is  also  the  same.  The  fodder  that 
yields  the  greatest  amount  of  nutritive  elements  that  are  digested,  has  the 
highest  value.  In  such  cases,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  feeding  stuffs  when 
alone,  act  very  differently  than  when  combined,  and  may  produce  a  collective 
depressing  effect.  The  digestibility  of  the  protein  of  a  fodder  may  decrease  by 
the  addition  of  starch,  for  example,  and  remain  constant  by  a  further  addition 
of  some  fatty  substance.  Hence  there  has  been  proposed  a  special  factor  known 
as  adipoprotein  relation,  which  is  a  proportion  between  the  protein  and  fatty 
substances.  Attention  should  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the  best  results  are  ob- 
tained when  the  proportion  is  1  to  2.  (In  hay  it  is  £  to  7.)  When  there  is 
too  much  fat  or  too  little,  the  effects  are  equally  bad.  When  the  nutritive 
relation  (relative  digestibility)  is  i.  the  best  combination  then  is  1  protein, 
0.5  fatty  substance  and  4.5  carbohydrate.  Some  authorities  maintain  that  the 
proportion  between  fat  and  protein  should  never  be  lower  than  £. 

In  all  these  formulae,  too  little  account  is  taken  of  the  proportion  between 


SCO  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

total  dry  matter  and  protein— in  reality  it  has  a  most  important  effect  upon 
digestibility;  furthermore  it  permits  one  to  form  a  very  satisfactory  idea  of  the 
degree  of  concentration  of  a  fodder.  It  is  frequently  maintained  that  the  pro- 
portion should  be  ^  per  1(0  Ibs.  live  weight,  in  other  words  10  dry  matter 
for  1  protein. 

Coloring  and  volatile  substances.  Fodders  frequently  con- 
tain certain  coloring  substances,  but  as  these  have  very  little  nutritive  value, 
they  are  seldom  taken  into  account  when  estimating  the  value  of  a  fodder; 
the  same  may  be  said  of  the  volatile  oils.  However  these,  upon  general  prin- 
ciples, may  be  considered  objectionable,  as  they  transmit  to  milk  an  unpleas- 
ant taste  and  odor. 

Concentrates  include  grains  and  mill  products.  It  is  a  great  mistake 
to  use  too  much  concentrated  fodder,  as  there  would  be  danger  of  bringing 
about  an  abnormal  fattening.  A  poor  fodder  would  be  the  other  extreme. 
(See  Digestibility.) 

Constituents  of  the  animal's  body.  The  composition  of  an 
animal  body  may  be  considered  either  from  an  organic  or  a  chemical  stand- 
point, the  microscope  revealing  the  elementary  forms,  while  the  chemical 
substances  may  be  determined  by  suitable  tests. 

The  elementary  form  is  the  primordial  cell;  it  divides  itself  into  two  parts, 
each  of  which  again  becomes  two;  this  segmentation  goes  on,  thus  forming 
the  various  tissues  of  which  the  body  of  the  animal  consists.  Whatever 
may  be  the  tissue,  it  originated  from  a  single  cell.  In  the  blood  the  globules 
retain  their  original  shape,  but  in  most  cases  they  make  up  the  fibrous  tis- 
sue. After  a  tissue  has  reached  its  ultimate  form,  it  must  be  constantly  re- 
newed and  the  burned  portions  eliminated.  The  combinations  of  these  cells 
are  very  numerous,  and  the  tissues  which  they  form  constitute  the  various 
organs  of  the  body  ;  among  which  we  have  the  bony,  cartilaginous,  con- 
junctive, muscular,  mucous  and  nervous  tissues.  The  bony  tissue  forms  the 
skeleton  upon  which  rest  the  other  tissues  and  organs  of  the  body.  The  car- 
tilaginous tissues  have  a  certain  elasticity.  In  them  are  formed  the  phos- 
phates, carbonates  of  lime,  etc.  The  stronger  bone  is  not  compact,  as  many 
suppose,  but  on  the  contrary  is  made  up  01  spaces  more  or  less  open,  the  outer 
portion  being  the  hardest.  The  conjunctive  tissue  is  spread  over  the  entire 
body.  Its  nature  varies  with  work  to  be  done,  covering  muscles,  or  constitut- 
ing a  tissue  in  which  is  deposited  the  fat.  When  it  forms  the  ligaments  of 
bones  it  assumes  an  undulated  shape. 

The  fatty  tissue  is  made  up  of  cells  more  or  less  round  and  filled  with  fat. 
Every  new  formation  of  fat  means  an  increased  number  of  cells.  WThen  fat- 
tening is  in  view  it  is  not  alone  necessary  to  feed  so  as  to  make  fat,  but  the 
fodder  should  also  contain  those  elements  which  help  to  build  up  the  cells. 

The  muscular  tissue  makes  the  meat  of  the  body;  it  is  by  these  that  the  body 
receives  its  power  of  motion.  They  are  attached  to  the  bones  by  tendons,  the 
thickness  of  which  varies  with  the  work  to  be  done.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
enter  into  various  considerations  showing  of  what  muscles  consist. 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.         337 

The  nervous  tissue  is  the  center  of  all  the  sensations  of  the  body.  All 
organs  receive  from  the  nerves  the  impulse  upon  which  they  enter  into  activity, 
and  all  voluntary  and  involuntary  movements  of  the  body  are  regulated  by  the 
nervous  tissues.  Every  perception  of  the  senses  is  through  the  nervous  tissue. 

Mucous  tissue  covers  all  the  empty  spaces  in  the  interior  of  the  body,  the 
digestive  cnnal,  the  respiratory  organs,  etc.  Its  importance  is  very  great  dur- 
ing every  stage  of  the  animal's  development.  A  reasonable  knowledge  of  this 
question  should  be  possessed  by  every  farmer. 

The  body  of  an  animal  consists  mainly  of  nitrogenous  elements,  besides 
which  there  is  distributed  through  the  tissues  a  certain  amount  of  fat  and  non- 
nitrogenous  substances.  After  these  are  burned,  there  remains  a  residuum 
which  represents  the  mineral  elements.  It  is  interesting  to  pass  these  rapidlv 
in  review,  remembering  that  the  starting-point  in  cattle-feeding  is  to  furnish 
in  the  fodder  those  elements  of  which  the  body  consists,  so  as  to  renew  the 
constant  waste  and  build  up  new  tissues.  Experiments  have  long  since  demon- 
strated that  plants  offer  advantages  not  found  elsewhere  for  this  purpose. 
Other  experiments  in  digestion  show  what  variety  of  plant  gives  the  best  result 
in  the  physical  laboratory  of  each  kind  of  animal  under  consideration. 

(a)  NITROGENOUS  ELEMENTS. 

The  main  characteristics  of  plants  is  their  high  percentage  of  carbon;  in 
animals,  on  the  other  hand,  the  salient  characteristic  is  the  nitrogen.  With 
young  and  thin  animals,  nitrogenous  substances  constitute  the  principal  part 
of  the  dry  matter  of  the  body.  The  most  important  group  of  nitrogenous  ele- 
ments is  the  albuminoids  or  protein  substances;  these  are  met  with  under  most 
varied  circumstances;  they  contain  about  16  per  cent,  nitrogen,  7  per  cent, 
hydrogen,  54  per  cent,  carbon,  22  per  cent,  oxygen,  and  1  per  cent,  sulphur. 
They  form  the  principal  constituents  of  blood,  eggs,  muscular  and  nervous 
tissue.  ^Vhen  dried  in  the  soluble  form,  they  are  white  or  yellowish,  without 
smell  and  soluble  in  water;  in  the  insoluble  form  they  are  insoluble  in  water. 
By  coagulation  the  soluble  portions  may  be  made  insoluble. 

The  most  important  of  the  group  is  albumen,  found  in  all  the  liquids  of  the 
animal's  organism,  more  especially  in  the  chyle  and  serum,  the  colorless  por- 
tions of  the  blood,  and  in  the  juice  of  meat  or  muscles. 

Fibrin  is  next  in  importance  in  the  nitrogenous  group;  it  is  found  either 
liquid,  dissolved  in  the  blood,  or  in  a  solid  state  in  the  muscles. 

All  these  protein  substances  may  undergo  numerous  transformations.  It  is 
from  them  that  all  the  other  nitric  elements  originate,  of  which  the  body  con- 
sists, and  in  particular  the  gelatigenous  substances.  These  are  next  in  im- 
portance to  the  albuminoids;  they  constitute  the  nitrogenous  organic  substances 
of  bones,  cartilages,  the  greater  portion  of  the  tendons  and  ligaments.  By 
prolonged  boiling  these  gelatigenous  substances  are  converted  into  glue;  they 
contain  less  carbon  than  the  albuminoids,  and  are  entirely  free  from  an  organic 
combination  of  sulphur — when  it  exists  its  percentage  is  generally  less  than  in 
the  albuminoids  ;  to  them  belongs  a  special  group  known  as  horny  matter ; 
they  are  found  in  the  outer  portions  of  the  body,  a  thin  layer  upon  the  skin, 
22 


338     FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

or  under  different  aspects,  such  as  hair,  wool,  horns,  claws,  etc.  Their  com- 
position is  about  as  follows:  51  per  cent,  carbon,  7  per  cent,  hydrogen,  16  to 
17  per  cent,  nitrogen,  20  to  22  per  cent,  oxygen.  Consequently,  it  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  the  average  composition  of  different  parts  of  the  body  is 
very  like  that  of  pure  albumin.  Several  important  experiments  show  that  the 
nitrogenous  organic  matters  of  the  body,  other  than  the  albuminoids  and  horny 
matter,  have  but  little  influence  on  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  of  which  the 
body  consists. 

(6)  NON-NITROGENOUS  ELEMENT". 

These  include  the  carbohydrates  and  mineral  constituents. 

Lactic  acid  is  one  of  the  non-nitrogenous  organic  substances  which  help  to 
make  up  the  body;  it  is  found  in  the  blood  and  in  the  muscular  tissues. 

It  is  one  of  the  elements  of  sugar  of  milk  found  in  the  gastric  juice,  and  also 
in  the  small  and  large  intestines. 

Sugar  is  also  found  in  the  blood,  in  a  maximum  quantity  of  0.1  per  cent., 
in  the  vein  leading  from  the  liver  in  the  direction  of  the  heart;  on  the  other 
hand  the  liver  contains  a  substance  known  as  glycogen,  which  is  very  like 
sugar,  found  also  in  very  limited  quantities  in  the  muscles  of  the  body;  with 
it  is  also  another  substance  called  inosite,  possessing  properties  and  a  com- 
position very  like  sugar.  Many  substances  found  in  the  bile  and  other 
secretions  of  the  body  are  also  non-nitrogenous,  but  their  percentage  is  so 
small  that  it  is  not  even  necessary  to  mention  them. 

Fat  is  to  be  found  in  variable  quantities  in  blood  (0.1  to  0.3  per  cent. ),  also 
in  milk,  the  nerve  tissue,  etc.,  in  all  solid  or  liquid  parts  of  the  body,  in 
special  cells  under  the  skin,  between  the  muscles  and  in  the  muscular  fibres. 
It  is  either  in  solid  state  like  tallow,  or  in  a  liquid  condition  not  unlike  oil. 
Its  appearance,  color  and  taste  vary  very  considerably  with  the  animal  from 
which  it  is  taken. 

The  thin  membrane  forming  walls  of  cells  containing  fat  represents  about 
0.8  per  cent,  of  total  weight  of  tissue.  All  fats  contain  at  least  75  per  cent, 
carbon,  11  per  cent,  hydrogen  and  12  per  cent,  oxygen,  and  are  consequently 
excellent  heat  formers.  When  not  consumed,  they  are  deposited  in  their 
special  cells,  where  they  remain  and  increase  in  quantity  unless  called  upon  to 
supply  an  insufficiency  in  the  fodder  used  ;  animals  dying  from  hunger 
consume  almost  all  the  fat  of  their  bodies.  Fats  take  a  most  important  part 
in  assisting  the  assimilation  of  protein  substances  and  in  the  formation  and 
development  of  animal  cells.  An  interesting  fact  is  that  fat  found  in  plants  is 
almost  identical  with  fat  found  in  the  body  of  an  animal.  Before  being  de- 
posited, it  undergoes  certain  transformations  and  may  be  in  greater  volume 
than  the  fodder  used  originally  contained.  The  quantity  of  fat  deposited  may 
reach  40  per  cent,  of  the  total  weight  of  cattle,  or  several  times  more  than  all 
the  dry  nitrogenous  substances  representing  the  animal's  weight  at  the  time  of 
killing.  An  animal  in  perfect  condition  has  rounded  proportions  due  to  fat, 
which  in  no  manner  interferes  with  the  general  functions  of  the  body;  on  the 
other  hand  when  submitted  to  a  process  of  systematic  fattening,  the  functions 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.         339 

of  the  body  are  interfered  with,  and  disease  may  declare  itself  if  continued  too 
long. 

Every  part  of  the  body  contains  water  in  quantities  that  appear  to  vary  with 
the  age  of  the  animal.  Upon  general  principles  it  may  be  admitted  that  50 
per  cent,  of  the  total  live  weight  is  water.  In  newly  born  animals,  this  per- 
centage may  reach  80  to  85. 

While  in  certain  cases  bones  contain  70  per  cent,  water,  when  they  attain 
their  full  development  this  percentage  is  only  20. 

The  water  of  the  body  may  be  considered  as  a  general  solvent;  it  determines 
the  absorption  of  the  nutritive  liquors  of  the  intestines,  renders  possible  a  con- 
tact between  various  substances  and  the  organs  of  the  body,  and  in  the  daily 
excretions  considerable  water  is  found  which  has  helped  to  carry  off  the  gen- 
eral wastes  of  the  body. 

Of  the  mineral  substances  mention  may  be  made  of  phosphoric  acid  and  lime, 
which  exist  in  almost  equal  proportions,  and  are  about  equal  to  |  of  the  total 
weight  of  the  ash  residuum  after  incineration  of  the  body;  the  rest  consists 
mainly  of  potassa,  soda,  magnesia,  iron,  chlorin,  sulphuric  acid,  carbonic 
acid,  and  a  small  percentage  of  silica. 

Bones  are  made  up  mainly  of  mineral  substances.  For  full-grown  animals 
these  represent  §  of  their  total  weight,  this  percentage  varying  with  the  outer, 
middle  and  inside  parts  of  the  bony  frame.  About  87  per  cent,  of  the  ash 
from  bones  is  phosphate  of  lime,  the  remainder  being  mainly  carbonate  of 
lime.  The  dried  part  of  bones  without  fat-  contains  27  per  cent,  phosphoric 
acid.  38  per  cent,  lime,  and  3  to  4  per  cent,  carbonic  acid. 

Magnesia  plays  only  a  very  secondary  role  in  the  constitution  and  the  main- 
tenance of  animals;  its  exact  functions  are  almost  unknown.  Iron  is  found 
in  quantities  representing  0.013  to  0.042  per  cent,  of  the  live  weight  of  a  full- 
grown  animal  in  a  good  condition;  its  most  important  functions  are  in  the 
blood;  it  is  the  essential  element  upon  which  the  coloring  of  blood  depends* 
its  existence  is  essential  to  the  good  health  of  animals,  as  shown  in  the  experi- 
ments of  Hosslin.  When  not  in  sufficient  quantity,  the  animals  were  tired 
and  had  a  very  active  circulation,  owing  to  the  absence  of  haemoglobin.  The 
arterial  blood  contains  oxyha?moglobin,  in  which  is  found  0.45  per  cent.  iron. 

The  blood  always  contains  alkalies  and  a  certain  percentage  of  sodic  chlorid, 
so  important  for  the  regular  working  of  the  functions  of  nutrition  and  respira* 
tion.  They  must  be  constantly  renewed  so  as  to  assure  the  proper  workings 
of  all  organs  connected  with  assimilation. 

The  functions  of  potassa  appear  to  be  confined  to  the  formation  of  tissue 
cells.  The  weight  of  potassa  and  soda  combined  that  should  be  fed  per  diem, 
is  300  grs.  per  100  k.  live  weight.  These  alkalies  are  constantly  eliminated 
through  the  urine,  and  the  fodders  must  not  be  deficient  in  them.  In  fact, 
numerous  experiments  in  feeding  without  mineral  salts  soon  resulted  in  death, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  body  appeared  to  be  in  a  perfectly  healthy 
condition.  The  blood  and  brain  lost  10  percent,  of  their  water  under  this 
regimen,  and  this  was  followed  by  a  general  decrease  in  phosphoric  acid.  etc. 
The  fodders  for  young  animals  should  never  be  deficient  in  lime  and  phos- 


340  FEEDING   WITH   SUGAR   BEETS,  SUGAE,  ETC. 

phoric  acid,  otherwise  tlic  bones  are  weak,  and  the  muscles  become  flabby. 
For  lambs  2  gr.,  young  swine  3  gr.,  calves  15  to  18  gr.  of  lime  per  diem,  and 
about  same  quantity  of  phosphoric  acid  may  be  considered  good  proportions, 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  bony  tissue.  These  remarks  apply  mainly  to  very 
young  animals;  in  older  cattle,  on  the  other  hand,  if  these  salts  are  not  given 
in  suitable  amounts,  death  carries  off  the  animal  before  the  bones  have  had 
time  to  be  affected,  so  that  rickets  or  osteoma  must  be  due  to  some  other 
cause.  Upon  general  principles  it  may  be  said  that  one  need  have  no  appre- 
hension as  regards  the  percentage  of  salts,  as  all  well-combined  rations  contain 
these,  and  they  are,  in  most  cases,  in  abundance.  Sodic  chlorid  and  lime 
are  the  most  important  to  be  considered.  In  feeding  beet  pulp  or  beets,  the 
phosphoric  acid  is  generally  in  greater  quantities  than  lime,  and  an  addition 
of  the  latter  may  be  found  desirable. 

Corn  and  cob  meal  is  becoming  of  late  very  popular  in  cattle  feed- 
ing, the  corn  and  the  cob  being  crushed  to  form  the  meal.  There  is  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  this  feed  sold  that  is  not  economical,  for  the  reason  that 
the  crushing  has  not  been  pushed  sufficiently  far  and  there  follows  consider- 
able waste  when  fed.  Certain  advantages,  from  a  digestive  standpoint,  are 
claimed  for  this  combination. 

Corpuscles,  as  they  exist  in  the  blood,  are  flat  discs.  They  may  be 
red,  white  or  colorless. 

Cotton  seed  meal.  This  is  a  residuum  from  the  manufacture  of 
cotton  seed  oil,  and  for  over  twenty  years  it  has  been  in  very  general  use  in 
cattle-feeding.  Its  advantages  depend  largely  upon  its  protein  constituents 
and  the  reasonable  percentage  of  fat  entering  into  its  composition  offers  an 
additional  argument  in  favor  of  its  use.  It  does  not  contain  carbohydrates 
(starch,  etc.).  Under  all  circumstances  when  fed,  it  should  be  combined  with 
coarser  fodders,  containing  a  heavy  percentage  of  carbohydrates.  Its  main 
advantage  is  its  cheapness,  and  in  this  respect  it  offers  exceptional  advantages 
for  making  up  a  ration  deficient  in  protein.  \Vhen  used  with  certain  discre- 
tion it  will  increase  the  flow  of  milk,  and  give  special  hardness  to  butter. 
Four  pounds  per  diem  in  many  cases  is  not  considered  an  excess.  Not  more 
than  2£  Ibs.  per  diem  is  considered  desirable  in  most  cases  for  1 ,000  Ibs.  live 
weight.  The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  its  use  are  not  as  great  with  pigs, 
sheep  and  horses,  as  they  are  with  milch  cows.  Composition  varies  from  20 
to  50  per  cent,  protein  for  8  to  18.5  per  cent.  oil.  In  most  cases  the  meals 
have  a  yellow  hue,  and  those  in  which  ground  hulls  are  reasonably  absent 
may  be  considered  the  most  desirable. 

Crude  fibre.  White  crude  fibre  makes  up  the  walls  and  cells  of  plants. 
It  is  of  a  very  variable  composition;  when  obtained  from  hay  it  may  contain 
45.5  per  cent,  of  carbon,  and  when  from  other  sources  very  much  more.  There 
are  several  substances  in  combination  with  it;  but  from  a  practical  standpoint 
those  are  overlooked.  The  percentage  of  crude  fibre  varies  very  considerably, 
as  beet  leaves  may  contain  2  per  cent,  of  this  substance,  and  salt  marsh  hay 
over  30  per  cent. 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.         341 

Cubic  meter  is  equivalent  to  264.2  gallons. 

Defecation.  With  the  view  to  the  purification  of  beet  juices,  they  are 
submitted  to  a  liming,  which  operation  is  known  as  defecation. 

Desiccation.  When  organic  substances  have  their  moisture  removed, 
they  are  desiccated;  this  in  other  words  is  drying. 

Digestibility. — Factors  governing  digestibility.  There  are  many  con- 
ditions that  affect  the  digestibility  of  a  fodder.  These  may  be  divided  into 
two  important  classes;  on  the  one  hand,  the  individual  characteristics  of  each 
animal  under  observation ;  on  the  other,  the  kind  and  composition  of  ration  used. 

Ruminating  animals  appear  to  digest  certain  forages  with  exactly  the  same 
ease;  the  variation  between  the  digestive  powers  of  cattle  and  goats,  for  ex- 
ample, is  so  slight  that  it  need  not  be  considered.  Comparative  experiments 
with  horses  are  not  within  the  scope  of  this  present  writing.  What  has  been 
said  respecting  different  ruminating  animals,  applies  to  species  of  the  same 
breed,  for  example,  with  sheep;  Merinos,  Southdowns,  etc..  when  stall-fed  oil 
clover  hay  or  other  fodder  digest  the  same  ration  in  about  the  same  propor- 
tion. \A  olff  says  that  the  digestibility  of  a  fodder  is  too  frequently  confounded 
with  its  nutritive  value.  The  latter  may  vary  with  the  breed,  as  it  depends 
upon  the  appetite  of  the  animal,  which  means  that  the  amount  of  fodder  con- 
sumed daily  depends  upon  individual  characteristics.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  digestibility  relates  to  per  cent.,  regardless  of  the  faulty  conditions  of  the 
animal's  digestive  functions.  Experiments  prove  that  the  age  of  the  animal 
or  its  degree  of  development  has  very  little  influence  (?),  the  necessary  condi- 
tions being  that  they  be  thoroughly  weaned  and  that  the  fodder  given  be  suit- 
able for  the  purpose  intended  and  of  an  agreeable  flavor.  Investigations  made 
at  Proskau  show  that  these  facts  are  true,  even  in  cases  where  sheep  are  two 
years  old.  They  would  not  hold  good  in  cases  where  the  fodder  is  of  difficult 
assimilation,  the  length  of  life  of  an  animal  then  depending  upon  its  powers  of 
digestion,  so  as  to  be  able  to  draw  sufficient  nutrient  from  fodder  for  its  vital 
sustenance. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  evident  that  individual  characteristics  must 
also  be  considered.  When  an  animal  is  young,  and  full  of  life,  the  chances 
for  having  a  perfect  digestion  are  certainly  better  than  with  those  more  ad- 
vanced in  years  whose  circulation  is  more  or  less  active.  Experiments  coming 
under  the  writer's  notice  appear  to  prove  that  nitric  elements  are  more  easily 
digested  in  very  young  animals  than  in  those  a  year  old;  but  as  previously 
said,  the  difference  is  very  slight.  Great  differences  may  be  observed  in  the 
same  animal  at  different  periods  of  its  existence;  the  variation  may  be  even 
greater  than  it  is  with  different  animals  of  same  breed.  Weike  has  remarked 
that  in  feeding  sheep  the  proportion  of  organic  substances  digested  may  be 
reduced  7  per  cent,  and  cellulose  15  per  cent.,  as  compared  with  normal  con- 
ditions. 

It  is  curious  to  observe  that  the  animal  which  has  the  best  digestion  is  not 
necessarily  the  one  that  will  most  rapidly  increase  in  weight;  in  other  words, 
the  amount  of  fodder  consumed  has  far  greater  influence  upon  the  augrnenta- 


FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


tion  of  adipose  tissue  than  has  the  coefficient  of  digestibility.  Animals  that 
are  stunted  or  badly  fed  when  young,  show  the  effect  of  their  poorly  developed 
condition  by  the  poor  working  of  their  digestive  organs. 

What  was  said  respecting  the  digestibility  of  a  fodder  taken  as  a  whole,  is 
not  entirely  true  when  the  components  of  which  it  is  composed  are  considered 
separately.  We  have  for  the  following  coefficients  of  digestibility  of  food 
components  for  different  animals  : 

COEFFICIENTS  OF  DIGESTIBILITY  FOR  FODDER  COMPONENTS. 


Animals  experi- 
mented on. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Nitrogen 
free  extract. 

Fibre. 

0  57 

0  61 

0  72 

0  fifi 

0  57 

0.65 

0  70 

0  61 

Oxen   

0  65 

0  64 

0  66 

0  60 

Goats    

0  60 

0  44 

0  64 

0  fi2 

From  which  data  one  might  draw  the  following  conclusions  :  Sheep  and  cows 
do  not  utilize  the  protein  as  advantageously  as  oxen  and  goats;  they,  however, 
assimilate  better  the  nitrogen  free  extract  than  do  the  animals  last  mentioned. 
The  influence  of  work  upon  digestion  is  a  very  important  factor  too  fre- 
quently overlooked.  Experiments  have  been  made  upon  horses  showing 
that  the  coefficient  of  digestibility  was  almost  entirely  independent  of  work 
done.  In  other  words,  when  a  horse  did  "  A"  foot  pounds  of  work  per  diern 
the  proportion  of  organic  substances  digested  in  the  ration  was  exactly  the 
same  as  when  the  animal  did  "  2  A  "  foot  pounds  during  the  same  interval. 
What  applies  to  organic  substances  applies  also  to  protein,  cellulose,  nitrogen 
free  extract,  etc.  The  amount  digested  of  these  remains  the  same  whatever, 
within  reasonable  limits,  be  the  work  done.  Just  how  far  this  would  apply  to 
oxen,  and  other  farm  animals  that  may  be  employed  for  their  muscular  power 
we  are  unable  to  say.  The  influence  of  the  composition  and  kind  of  ration 
used  upon  its  digestibility  is  made  very  evident  when  we  consider  that  the 
function  of  digestion  depends  upon  the  extent  to  which  the  gastric  juice  acts 
upon  the  molecules  of  each  element  of  which  the  ration  is  composed. 

This  coefficient  must  necessarily  vary,  not  only  with  each  plant,  but  also 
with  the  same  plant,  depending  upon  its  age,  method  of  harvesting  and  keep- 
ing. What  has  been  said  in  regard  to  plants,  refers  more  particularly  to 
coarse  fodders;  the  by-fodders  used  and  their  composition  have  also  an  im- 
portant influence  not  to  be  overlooked.  If  the  ration  varies  in  weight  from 
day  to  day.  the  per  cent,  of  digestibility  of  each  of  its  components  remains 
constant.  W'olff's  experiments  at  Hohenheim  and  elsewhere  demonstrated 
beyond  cavil  that  this  is  almost  mathematically  correct.  The  animals  ex- 
perimented with  were  fed  on  hay. 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.         343 

A  fact  now  generally  admitted  is  that  cattle  in  general,  when  in  a  good 
healthy  condition,  will  eat  the  amount  of  fodder  per  diem  that  their  require- 
ments may  demand;  but  it  is  not  admissible  that,  by  reducing  the  value  of  a 
ration,  a  greater  assimilation  can  be  realized.  The  coefficient  of  digestibility 
remains  constant  whether  one,  two  or  three  pounds  of  clover  hay  are  fed  to 
sheep  per  diem  without  addition  of  other  fodders.  All  these  experiments  are 
very  limited  and  the  conclusions  obtained  are  to  be  accepted  only  with  a  cer- 
tain reserve. 

It  is  admitted  that  every  element  is  digested  in  the  same  manner  regardless 
of  the  condition  in  which  it  is  furnished,  whether  in  a  dry  or  fresh  state.  At 
first  this  seems  to  be  a  paradox,  but  can  not  be  doubted,  as  it  agrees  with  prac- 
tical tests  made  under  most  varied  conditions.  An  essential  requisite  is  that 
the  fresh  and  dried  fodders  be  exactly  of  the  same  composition.  "While  such 
results  may  be  obtained  with  fresh  or  dried  beet  cossettes,  with  coarse  fodders 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  realize  them,  as  the  method  of  harvesting  and  dry- 
ing may  have  great  influence.  The  exact  influence  that  the  water  of  a  fodder 
has  upon  milk,  is  still  an  open  question.  Whether  water  added  to  dry  cossettes, 
for  example,  produces  the  same  effect  as  the  water  contained  in  sliced  beets, 
experiments  have  not  yet  been  made  in  sufficient  number  to  determine.  The 
method  of  storing  coarse  fodders  has  considerable  influence  on  their  digesti- 
bility. Experiments  upon  hay  show  that  62  per  cent,  of  its  protein  was 
digested  when  used,  after  being  recently  harvested;  only  54  per  cent,  was 
digested  three  months  later,  while  the  digestibility  of  crude  fibre  and  nitrogen- 
free  extract  remained  almost  constant.  The  great  losses  attributed  to  coarse 
fodders  are  frequently  due  to  there  having  been  some  neglect  in  siloing.  The 
period  of  development  of  a  plant  has  considerable  influence  on  its  digestibility; 
if  fed  during  the  first  period  the  fibre  is  very  tender  and  is  almost  entirely  assimi- 
lated. Seventy-one  per  cent,  of  protein  of  green  clover,  cut  before  flowering, 
when  fed  to  an  ox  was  digested,  while  several  months  later  only  40  per  cent, 
was  digested.  The  early  cut  fodders  contain  a  much  smaller  percentage  of 
protein  than  is  found  later,  which  is  another  explanation  of  its  increased  di- 
gestibility. To  these  conditions  must  be  added  the  influence  of  climate,  soil, 
fertilizer,  etc.  Method  of  preparing  a  fodder  has  an  important  influence 
upon  its  digestibility  —  cooking,  maceration,  etc..  may  give  good  results  in 
special  ways.  Hellriegel  and  Lncanus.  by  a  series  of  experiments,  demon- 
strated that  straw  that  had  been  fermented  and  fed  to  animals  underwent  no 
variation  in  its  coefficient  of  digestibility.  With  hay  the  digestibility  of 
cellulose  was  slightly  increased,  while  on  the  other  hand,  the  digestibility  of 
nitrogen-free  extract  was  lessened.  Just  why  this  should  be  the  case  is  not 
stated.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  palatability  of  a  fodder  may  be  in- 
creased by  judicious  preparation,  under  which  circumstance  animals  eat  very 
much  more  than  they  would  have  done  had  the  special  preparation  not  been 
resorted  to.  Consequently,  satisfactory  results  may  be  thus  obtained,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  percentage  of  nutrients  assimilated  would  be  only  to 
a  limited  extent  increased.  What  has  been  said  of  coarse  fodders,  applies 
equally  to  concentrated  fodders.  K.iihn  and  Mockern  have  shown  this  to  be 


344      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

•the  case  by  feeding  to  oxen  acidulated  bran,  that  had  been  previously  saturated 
in  hot  water,  whereby  the  digestibility  of  its  protein  had  decreased.  By  heat- 
ing bran  with  alkalies,  very  much  the  same  result  was  obtained. 

Concentrated  feeds  ;  their  influence  upon  digestion.  As  has  been  previously 
pointed  out,  various  conditions,  such  as  age,  method  of  harvesting  and  keeping, 
etc.,  of  coarse  fodders,  influence  their  digestibility,  and  concentrated  or  by- 
fodders  added  to  make  up  the  ration,  must  also  be  considered.  The  digesti- 
bility of  these  when  fed  alone,  is  not  the  same  as  when  commingled  with  hay, 
etc.  A  fact  to  be  constantly  remembered,  is  that  while  in  some  cases  the  by- 
fodder  may  help  the  digestion  of  coarse  fodders,  if  not  properly  used  the  effect 
will  be  depressing.  To  fully  determine  the  influence  of  a  by-fodder  upon 
digestion,  it  should  be  added  in  increasing  quantities  to  a  ration,  so  that, 
knowing  the  digestibility  of  the  compound  considered  as  a  whole,  and  also 
that  of  the  coarse  fodder  separately,  by  subtraction  an  idea  may  be  had  of  the 
influence  of  this  fodder.  These  results  are  not  very  accurate,  but  are  suffi- 
ciently so  for  the  calculation  of  rations.  Jf  in  the  various  experiments  made 
the  same  coefficient  of  digestibility  is  obtained,  it  would  give  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  by -fodder  added;  if  changes  have  occurred,  the  difference  of 
digestibility  would  show  what  the  depressing  effect  had  been.  In  all 
these  experiments  it  is  supposed  that  the  digestibility  of  hay  has  remained 
unaltered.  In  all  such  experiments,  it  must  be  understood  that  the  coefficient 
of  digestibility  means  the  result  obtained  by  dividing  the  digestible  protein  by 
the  carbohydrates,  including  digestible  crude  fat  reduced  to  its  equivalent  of 
starch  by  the  factor  2.25.  Experiments  of  Schulze  and  Maercker  show  that 
the  addition  of  albuminoids  to  a  ration  has  no  depressing  effect.  These  experi- 
ments were  upon  sheep  that  received  2.2  Ibs.  of  hay  per  diem,  to  which  were 
added  120  grams  wheat  gluten  containing  78  per  cent,  albumin;  in  the  second 
series  262  grams  of  gluten  were  added. 

The  proportion  of  digested  protein  of  hay  remained  almost  unchanged;  the 
difference  noticed  may  be  ignored  in  view  of  the  fact  that  some  of  it  was  not 
entirely  assimilated;  for  ciude  fibre,  etc.,  the  depression  was  very  slight,  the 
difference  becoming  even  smaller  when  the  whole  ration  was  considered. 

It  may  consequently  be  concluded  that  gluten  is  almost  entirely  digested, 
and  that  albuminoids,  taken  as  a  whole,  have  very  little  influence  upon  the 
digestibility  of  a  fodder.  It  is  interesting  to  examine  the  influence  of  nitro- 
genous by-fodders,  where  the  coefficient  varies  from  1-1  to  1-5.  These  have 
very  little  influence  upon  the  by-fodders  to  which  they  may  be  added.  Experi- 
ments in  sheep,  goat  and  oxen  feeding  were  made  with  rape,  cake,  bean,  cotton 
seed,  meal,  crushed  beans,  etc.  Other  by-fodders,  such  as  oil  cake,  distillers' 
residuum,  etc. ,  would  lead  to  the  same  results.  It  is  important  to  understand 
that  in  these  concentrated  fodders  each  element  has  its  own  special  digestibility 
that  remains  nearly  the  same,  notwithstanding  the  percentage  of  these  used  in 
the  ration.  For  example,  90  per  cent,  of  the  protein  substances  of  peas  and 
other  vegetables  of  the  same  class  may  be  digested  by  ruminating  animals,  85 
per  cent,  when  in  flax  oil  cake,  etc.  On  the  other  hand,  the  proportion  of 
digestible  protein  of  coarse  fodders  remains  nearly  the  same  when  fed  alone  or 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.        345 

m  conjunction  with  other  fodders.  The  influence  of  grains  (nutritive  relation 
1-5  to  8)  has  not  been  examined  as  thoroughly  as  the  importance  of  the  subject 
demands.  The  experiments  of  Hofmeister  and  Haubuer  may  be  cited  :  The 
proportions  between  hay  and  oats  fed  varied  from  1-1.76  to  1-3.30;  about  78 
per  cent,  of  the  protein  of  oats  was  digested. 

Numerous  experiments  lead  one  to  conclude  that  when  the  nutritive  relation 
is  1-5.5  there  is  no  depression  in  the  digestion  of  a  coarse'  fodder  eaten  at  the 
same  time  as  the  concentrated  by-fodder.  When  the  digestibility  is  made 
1-8  to  10.  the  digestibility  of  coarse  fodder  decreases. 

Digestibility  of  crude  protein.  The  digestibility  of  crude  protein  in  a  fodder 
depends  upon  the  kind  considered,  reaching  80  per  cent,  in  some  cases.  In 
good  hay  the  digestibility  of  protein  seems  to  depend  upon  the  proportion  be- 
tween it  and  the  organic  substances,  while  cellulose ^also  takes  an  active  part, 
and  has  an  important  influence  upon  the  result.  Many  formula?  have  been 
proposed,  having  for  their  object  the  mathematical  determination  of  the  di- 
gestibility of  a  fodder.  As  the  results  depend  upon  the  percentage  of  protein, 
their  accuracy  rests  upon  a  series  of  practical  experiments  giving  averages ; 
the  coefficient  can  then  be  used  to  a  great  advantage.  If  we  admit  the 
theory  of  a  partial  fermentation  in  the  intestinal  canal  as  was  supposed  in  dis- 
cussing the  digestibility  of  cellulose,  it  must  not  oe  forgotten  that  there  would 
follow  a  loss  of  protein.  Tappeimer  estimates  this  to  be  10  per  cent.,  which 
cannot  be  accounted  for;  but  as  regards  this  assertion,  nothing  is  certain,  as 
the  loss  may  be  only  apparent,  for  Kirschner's  experiments  appear  to  prove 
that  this  loss  largely  depends  upon  the  percentage  of  carbohydrates  in  the 
fodder.  When  these  are  in  excess,  they  prevent  the  fermentation  of  protein 
in  the  intestinal  tube.  Before  giving  some  interesting  examples  of  experiments 
having  in  view  the  digestibility  of  protein  and  formulae  relating  to  same,  it  is 
well  to  point  out  their  weak  side,  which  is  that  they  are  solely  based  upon 
chemical  transformations  and  no  allowance  is  made  for  the  physical  character- 
istics, which  are  variable  and  must  be  considered  in  each  special  case.  The 
experiments  having  in  view  the  determination  of  the  digestibility  of  protein 
have  become  so  numerous  that  an  average  of  a  few  hundred  of  them  gives  a 
coefficient  that  may  be  considered  mathematically  correct. 

Some  important  observations  to  determine  the  influence  of  pepsin  upon  the 
digestibility  of  protein,  were  conducted  under  the  auspices  of  Stutzer.  later  by 
Pfeiffer.  The  fodder  was  first  treated  by  an  acid  solution  of  pepsin,  then  by  an 
alkaline  extract  of  pancreatic  fluid;  excrements  were  also  treated  in  very  much 
the  same  manner.  The  results  obtained  were  almost  identical  with  those  of 
the  natural  digestion  of  sheep.  In  five  experiments,  the  fodder  used  varied 
in  each  case.  1st  meadow  hay,  2d  meadow  hay  and  oil  cake.  3d  same  as 
second  but  dried  diffusion  cossettes  added.  4th  clover  hay,  5th  clover  hay,  oil 
cake  and  diffusion  cossettes  fresh.  If  100  represents  the  total  protein  in  each 
case,  the  following  proportions  of  crude  protein  of  the  ration  were  not  dis- 
solved or  digested  : 


316  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

1st.  2d.  3d.  4th.  5th. 

Artificial  digestion  ...  20.57  %.     14.41  %.     13.22  %.     10.83  %.     10.69  %. 
Natural  digestion  ....   21.46  %.     15.4    %.     13.65  #.     11.32%.       9.93$. 

The  proportions  would  be  much  higher  if  no  allowance  were  made  for  the 
nitrogen  furnished  by  the  body  during  assimilation.  Kellner's  experiments 
show  that  for  every  100  parts  of  dry  digested  substances,  there  is  at  least  2 
part  of  nitrogen  furnished  by  the  body,  etc.  As  the  number  of  comparative 
experiments  between  natural  and  artificial  digestion  is  very  limited,  it  would 
be  a  mistake  to  attacli  too  much  importance  to  any  of  them  or  to  abandon  exist- 
ing coefficients  of  digestibility  to  adopt  those  based  upon  artificial  digestion. 

A  fact  to  be  borne  constantly  in  mind  is  that  the  digestibility  of  protein 
is  the  most  important  question  relating  to  cattle  feeding ;  on  it  success  de- 
pends. However,  even  when  these  nitrogenous  substances  are  not  digested, 
they  are  not  entirely  lost,  as  they  are  subsequently  used  upon  the  soil  as  fer- 
tilizers. The  plant  laboratory  does  slowly  what  might  have  been  accomplished 
rapidly  in  the  stomach.  A  complete  assimilation  is  doubly  advantageous  to 
the  farmer,  as  more  meat  is  produced  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  the 
nitric  elements  in  the  fertilizers  are  nearly  the  same  as  they  would  have  been 
had  they  contained  protein  in  excess.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  taken  up 
slowly  by  the  plant  in  growing,  while  when  in  a  more  soluble  form,  such  as 
urea,  the  absorption  is  almost  immediate.  Numerous  investigators,  Henne- 
berg,  Kuhn,  Schultze,  etc.,  have  demonstrated  that  when  the  digestive  ratio 
diminishes,  the  coefficient  of  digestibility  of  protein  decreases.  The  use  of 
so-called  nutritive  equivalents  based  upon  their  percentage  of  nitrogen  is  not 
accepted  by  all  authorities.  Stohmann's  experiments  point  to  the  fact  that  it 
is  possible  to  admit  a  formula  having  a  variable  factor  so  as  to  make  allow- 
ances for  each  special  case,  the  value  of  which  should  be  based  upon  practical 
experiments. 

The  Stohrnann  formula  now  generally  accepted  was  not  the  first;  and  many 
more  recent  ones  are  very  satisfactory  and  give  results  that  are  sufficiently 
correct  for  most  practical  purposes. 

~     ~  .  ,.  ,.        .,  ...        ,,  Fats  +  Nitrogen  free  extract 

Coefficient  of  digestibility  of  protein  =  — 

.Protein  -f-  Carbohydrates. 

Digestibility  of  carbohydrates.  As  previously  mentioned,  carbohydrates  have 
a  decided  influence  on  the  digestibility  of  feeds,  upon  protein  and  crude  fibre 
substances  especially.  In  the  experiments  of  Stutzer  and  Isbert  to  determine 
the  artificial  digestion  of  carbohydrates  without  fat,  it  is  shown  that  they  may 
be  dissociated  by  the  action  of  ferments  into  two  parts,  one  of  which  is  digestible 
and  the  other  indigestible.  Here  again  the  results  in  artificial  digestion  must 
not  be  confounded  with  those  of  digestion  under  normal  conditions;  in  the  latter 
there  is  a  series  of  micro-organisms  which  have  an  important  influence  and  may 
in  a  measure  dissolve  the  carbohydrates  to  a  greater  extent  than  would  have  been 
possible  by  the  action  of  ferments  considered  alone.  Attention  is  called  to  the 
importance  of  undertaking  some  new  experiments  in  this  direction,  to  deter- 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.         347 

mine  the  actual  percentage  of  carbohydrates  that  is  soluble;  this  being  known, 
the  digestibility  of  crude  fibre  could  be  entirely  ignored.  Wolff  discussing 
the  subject,  says  that  no  data  can  possibly  be  accepted  unless  shown  to  be  true 
by  practical  experiments  upon  living  animals.  Of  all  the  carbohydrates  hav- 
ing the  greatest  influence  upon  digestion,  starch  heads  the  list.  Numerous 
experiments  upon  every  kind  of  animal  have  demonstrated  that  when  its  pro- 
portion in  coarse  fodder  is  higher  than  10  per  cent,  of  the  dry  matter,  the  in- 
fluence is  noticeable;  when  reaching  15  per  cent. .  the  effect  is  slight,  but  is 
very  great  when  it  attains  25  to  30  per  cent.  In  the  experiments  of  Schulze 
and  Maercker,  800  grams  of  meadow  hay  were  fed  with  230  grams  of  starch; 
the  digestibility  of  hay  fell  from  54  to  32  per  cent. ,  or  a  loss  of  41  per  cent,  of 
the  digestible  proportion.  Consequently,  upon  general  principles,  it  may  be 
admitted  that  by  the  addition  of  starch  in  quantities  representing  £  of  the 
total  dry  substances  of  a  coarser  fodder,  there  is  a  depression  of  15  per  cent,  in 
the  digestibility  of  crude  protein  and  at  least  25  per  cent,  for  £  starch,  and  40 
per  cent,  wiien  the  starch  is  £  of  the  weight  of  dry  substances.  These  results 
depend  upon  the  age  and  kind  of  fodder;  if  a  by-fodder  consisting  mainly  of 
oil  cake  be  added  in  sufficient  quantities,  the  effect  of  starch  may  be  entirely 
neutralized. 

Sugar  has  very  much  the  same  effect  as  starch,  but  to  a  much  smaller  ex- 
tent. Starch  and  sugar  have  a  secondary  effect  upon  the  digestibility  of 
nitrogen-free  extract  and  fat,  so  long  as  the  by-fodder  is  digested,  which  occurs 
when  the  fodder  is  poor  in  nitrogen  as  compared  with  non-nitrogenous  sub- 
stances. 

The  feeding  of  sugar  to  animals  in  some  countries  is  a  very  general  practice, 
not  always  in  the  form  of  pure  sugar,  but  as  molasses  containing  50  per  cent, 
sugar.  Starch  on  the  other  hand  is  seldom  used,  unless  it  be  in  the  residuum 
from  starch  factories  or  in  potatoes.  Roots  contain  percentages  of  sugar  that 
depend  upon  their  variety.  However,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  starch 
and  sugar  when  presented  in  this  shape,  have  a  very  different  action  than 
when  fed  alone,  due  to  the  fact  that  they  have  other  elements  in  combination, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  protein. 

It  is  desired  to  call  attention  to  some  interesting  experiments  made  by 
Wolff,  the  results  of  which  are  given  in  the  following  table.  The  roots  added 
to  the  fodders  are  supposed  to  be  entirely  digestible,  and  the  depression 
noticed  refers  to  other  fodders  making  up  the  ration.  WThether  roots 
are  wholly  digested  or  not,  does  not  influence  the  results  obtained.  It  was 
noticed  that  as  the  quantity  of  roots  used  increased,  so  did  the  depression 
in  the  assimilation  of  the  various  elements  of  which  the  fodder  is  composed. 
In  the  table  herewith  the  quantities  given  refer  to  dry  substances  of  by-fodder 
as  compared  with  coarse  fodder. 


348      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

VARYING  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  COARSE  FODDER  WHEN  FED  WITH  ROOTS. 


Proportion  between 
roots  and  coarse 
fodder. 

Crude 
protein. 

Nitrogen 
free  extract. 

Crude 
fibre. 

Organic 
substances. 

Parts  of  coarse  fodder  undigested. 

1 

5 

3 

4 

4 

IteJ 

10 

5 

7 

6 

| 

15 

7 

10 

9 

itol 

25 

10 

14 

12 

It  has  been  noticed  that  potatoes  have  a  very  much  greater  depressing  effect 
than  beets  for  example,  but  this  was  more  especially  noticeable  when  a  large 
amount  was  used.  The  depression  was  the  greatest  when  the  nutritive  ratio 
was  the  narrowest.  One  may  take  these  facts  into  consideration  when  calcu- 
lating the  components  for  a  ration. 

Experiments  made  do  not  prove  that  beets  when  entering  a  ration  affect 
its  digestibility  according  to  ajiy  ratio  that  may  be  determined  in  advance. 
Upon  general  principles,  it  may  be  admitted  that  fodders  rich  in  amides  intro- 
duce carbohydrates  or  nitrogen-free  extract  into  the  ration,  under  which  cir- 
cumstances their  coefficient  of  digestibility  is  very  high.  Experiments  made 
in  feeding  beets  to  sheep  show  it  to  be  90  to  95;  as  for  the  pig,  his  digestive 
organs  are  much  better  adapted  to  potatoes  than  beets. 

When  considering  these  experiments,  they  must  be  looked  at  as  a  whole 
and  not  in  detail,  and  the  safest  rule  is  to  rely  upon  excess  rather  than  a 
deficiency,  especially  of  protein.  For  this  reason,  the  writer  has  constantly 
recommended  that  in  feeding  beets  and  pulps  to  cattle  care  be  taken  to  add 
not  only  sufficient  straw,  but  also  a  reasonable  amount  of  oil  cake. 

Digestibility  of  fatty  substances.  In  most  works  upon  cattle  feeding,  too  little 
importance  is  given  to  the  digestibility  of  fatty  substances.  The  ether  ex- 
tracts, properly  speaking,  are  more  or  less  digestible,  but  too  much  reliance 
should  not  be  placed  upon  these;  for  example  chlorophyl  or  the  coloring  mat- 
ter of  plants  is  soluble  in  ether,  but  yet  is  not  digestible.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  wax  and  rosins,  so  that  the  digestibility  of  crude  fat  (ether  extract) 
depends  upon  various  circumstances  which  are  largely  influenced  by  the  special 
fodder.  Sixty  per  cent,  of  the  fatty  substance  of  fresh  clover  is  digestible, 
while  in  certain  straws  only  35  per  cent,  can  be  utilized. 

The  importance  of  using  a  by-fodder  containing  oil  has  been  appreciated  for 
centuries.  The  experiments  of  Crusius  have  long  since  demonstrated  that 
fatty  substances  increase  the  digestibility  of  protein  and  carbohydrates.  How- 
ever, on  this  question  opinions  differ.  Straw  can  certainly  be  better  utilized 


DEFINITIONS   AND   TECHNICAL   CONSIDERATIONS.        349 

by  the  addition  of  fat  to  a  fodder.  It  is  important  to  use  fatty  substances  in 
moderation,  otherwise  ruminating  animals  soon  lose  their  appetites;  this  is 
more  particularly  the  case  when  oil  is  added  to  a  fodder,  and  is  not  true  to  the 
same  extent  when  the  crude  fat  of  a  by-fodder  is  considered.  Some  German 
experiments  prove  that  100  grams  per  diem  may  be  fed  without  influencing 
the  weight  of  an  animal  one  way  or  the  other. 

The  best  proportion  between  fats  and  protein  is  claimed  by  some  to  be 

Fats          1        1 


Protein  ~  2. 2  °r  3 

Experiments  appear  to  show  that  beyond  1-2.2  the  fats  simply  pass  into  the 
excrements  without  being  utilized. 

CruLius's  experiments  appear  to  show  almost  conclusively  that  the  increase 
in  weight  of  a  sucking  calf  does  not  depend  upon  the  protein  or  milk  sugar, 
but  upon  the  butter  contained  in  the  milk  of  the  mother.  This  should  be 
about  5  per  cent,  of  total  milk  drunk. 

Henneberg  and  Stohmann's  experiments  also  show  that  the  crude  fatty  sub- 
stances contained  in  a  coarse  fodder  are  not  equally  digestible  in  all  fodders, 
and  that  it  is  not  well  to  assume  that  more  than  1-3  is  assimilated;  the  amount 
to  be  added  consequently  increases  with  the  quantity  of  concentrated  fodders 
used  in  a  ration. 

Investigations  relating  to  the  digestibility  of  fats  are  not  as  accurate  as  those 
upon  albuminoids.  Several  sources  of  error  constantly  occur,  due  to  the  fat 
found  in  excrements  that  comes  from  the  bile,  which,  if  not  deducted,  would 
lead  to  the  supposition  that  the  fat  was  less  digestible  than  it  actually  is. 
This  source  of  error  is  slight  when  the  fodder  contains  considerable  fat,  but  is 
great  when  the  original  percentage  was  low. 

Digestibility  of  fibre.  To  estimate  the  amount  of  cellulose  digested  is  more 
difficult  than  one  might  suppose.  If  the  percentage  of  crude  fibre  found  in 
the  fodder  fed  and  excrement  obtained  be  reduced  to  pure  cellulose  and  lignin, 
based  upon  their  percentage  of  carbon,  and  one  result  subtracted  from  the 
other,  the  amount  obtained  representing  digestibility  would  be  much  higher 
than  the  reality.  However,  from  a  practical  point  of  view  this  method 
answers  every  purpose.  The  most  important  investigations  relating  to  digesti- 
bility of  cellulose  are  those  of  Henneberg  and  Stohmann.  It  has  been  con- 
cluded that  30  to  70  per  cent,  of  crude  fibre  is  digestible,  depending  upon  the 
animal  and  manner  of  feeding.  Pure  cellulose  contains  about  44  per  cent,  of 
carbon  or  about  the  same  as  starch,  and  it  is  mainly  in  this  state  that  it  is 
assimilated.  Owing  to  the  excessive  length  of  their  intestinal  canal  ruminants 
have  a  special  facility  for  digesting  crude  cellulose.  In  the  experiments  men- 
tioned in  the  foregoing,  in  which  it  was  found  that  oat  straw  had  a  coeflicient 
of  digestibility  of  0.44,  wheat  straw  0.39,  clover  hay  0.67,  etc.,  the  protein 
had  an  important  influence.  Weiske's  experiments  upon  sheep  appear  to 
show  that  the  cellulose  dissolved  during  the  last  stages  of  digestion  had  very 
little  effect  towards  economizing  albumin  during  the  process  of  assimilation. 


350      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

There  are  numerous  theories  attempting  to  prove  that  cellulose  undergoes  a 
partial  fermentation  in  the  intestinal  canal,  during  which  period  there  is  the 
generation  of  marsh  gas.  One  fact  is  certain,  and  numerous  figures  could  be 
given  proving  such  to  be  the  case — it  is  mainly  pure  cellulose  that  is  digested 
and  only  a  small  portion  of  the  crude  cellulose.  Any  theory  respecting  trans- 
formation of  cellulose  during  passage  through  the  intestinal  canal  would  apply 
to  other  fodders  that  are  difficult  of  assimilation. 

The  digestibility  of  cellulose  may  be  calculated  by  the  Wolff  formula; 

Digestibility  of  C.  =  Crude  fibre 


Protein  -f-  fat  and  nitrogen-free  extract 
Some  recommend  the  Mehlin  formula: 

Digestibility  of  C.  =  $  X  Fat  +  nitrogen-free  extract  -  protein 

Crude  fibre. 

The  results  obtained  by  estimating  with  these  two  formulae  are  not  the  same. 

A  part  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  of  a  fodder  may  be  considered  indigest- 
ible and  is  thrown  out  in  the  excrements. 

Mehlin  says  that  the  coefficient  of  digestibility  of  nitrogen-free  extract  may 
be  calculated  by  the  formula: 

Digestibility  of  nitrogen-free  extract  =  2  Protein  +  Lign in 

3  Crude  fibre. 

As  a  general  thing  starch  and  sugar  may  be  considered  digestible;  notwith- 
standing this  fact  however,  a  certain  amount  of  them  is  found  in  the  excre- 
ments when  fed  in  excess. 

It  is  maintained  that  there  is  a  sort  of  compensation  between  the  crude  cel- 
lulose that  is  digested  and  the  nitrogen-free  extract  that  escapes  digestion; 
consequently  it  is  admitted  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen-free  extract  found  in 
the  excrement  represents  the  digested  crude  fibre  and  nitrogen-free  extract,  or 
in  other  words,  the  digested  non-nitrogenous  matter  exclusive  of  fat. 

The  results  obtained  in  this  direction  are  very  misleading,  as  it  frequently 
happens  that  the  nitrogen-free  extract  in  the  dung  is  higher  than  could  be 
theoretically  possible. 

The  sum  of  digested  nitrogen-free  extract  and  crude  fibre  is  equal  to  the 
total  nitrogen-free  extract  and  fat. 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 


351 


KELATION  BETWEEN  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  NITROGEN-FREE  EXTRACT,  CRUDF 
FIBRE  AND  FAT. 


DIG 

ESTED. 

DIGESTED. 

KIND  OF  FODDER. 

Crude 
fibre. 

Nitrogen- 
free  extract. 

Total. 

Nitrogen-free 
extract  +  fat. 

3  790 

3  215 

7  005 

7  245 

1  685 

1  OS5 

2  770 

o  775 

5  140 

11  490 

16  630 

17  265 

3  695 

C  965 

10  685 

10  460 

The  younger  the  plant,  the  more  readily  is  its  cellulose  digested;  as  the 
percentage  of  crude  cellulose  is  then  at  a  minimum,  the  digested  proportion 
of  non-nitrogenous  substances  is  consequently  greater. 

In  the  experiments  of  Hohenheim  with  clover  of  different  ages,  many  inter- 
esting facts  are  demonstrated  beyond  cavil.  If  K  is  the  quotient  obtained 
by  dividing  the  digested  non-nitrogenous  substances  by  the  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract, determined  by  analysis  of  the  fodder,  and  C  the  percentage  of  crude 
fibre  digested,  we  have  the  following.  The  age  of  the  clover  depended  upon 
the  stage  of  the  experiment. 

DIGESTIBILITY  OF  CRUDE  CELLULOSE  IN  CLOVER. 


i 

2 

3 

4 

R  

111  9 

105  5 

101  8 

88  5 

n 

60  0 

SSt 

49  Q 

38  8 

From  these  experiments,  it  is  concluded  that  the  digestibility  of  crude  cel- 
lulose diminishes  more  rapidly  than  all  the  non-nitrogenous  substances  taken 
together,  but  is  to  a  certain  extent  influenced  by  the  percentage  of  crude  cel- 
lulose present,  which  shows  that  the  theory  of  compensation  mentioned  in 
the  foregoing  is  not  absolutely  accurate. 

It  is  admitted  that,  with  the  exception  of  fat,  all  the  digested  non-nitro- 
genous substances  of  a  fodder  are  transformed  into  sugar  or  some  saccharine 
substance,  and  that  it  is  assimilated  in  this  form.  Consequently  from  a  prac- 
tical point  of  view,  we  may  admit  that  the  mass  of  non-nitrogenous  substances 
of  a  fodder  are  simply  assimilated  as  if  they  were  carbohydrates  and  fat.  The 


352 


FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 


nitrogen-free  extract  that  has  remained  undigested  has  a  composition  very  like 
lignin  (55  to  56  per  cent,  carbon)  and  is  of  secondary  importance. 

It  is  interesting  to  call  attention  to  Weende's  experiments  upon  sheep  and 
oxen  in  which  it  is  demonstrated  that  what  is  known  as  water  extract,  or  total 
solid  matter  that  may  be  extracted  from  a  fodder  by  boiling  water,  gives  us  an 
excellent  idea  of  the  percentage  of  nitrogen-free  extract  that  may  be  digested. 

Stohmann's  experiments  in  this  same  direction  gave  the  following  results  : 

DIGESTIBILITY  OF  NITROGEN-FREE  EXTRACT  AS  DETERMINED  BY  WATER 

EXTRACTION. 


KIND  OF  FODDER. 

Substances 
soluble  in  hot 
water. 

Nitrogen- 
free  extract 
digested. 

Error. 

3  25 

3  17 

_i_  o  08 

0  94 

i  07 

0  1Q 

11  24 

HQO 

0  06 

6  42 

6  36 

0  46 

Even  in  this  case  important  variations  are  noticeable.  This  method  has 
never  received  a  general  application  for  the  reason  that  no  known  proportion 
exists  between  the  digested  portion  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  of  a  fodder  and 
the  substances  of  a  fodder  soluble  in  water,  the  latter  containing  not  only  non- 
nitrogenous  substances,  but  also  albumin  and  ash.  This  method  has,  how- 
ever, a  certain  practical  utility,  as  the  digestibility  of  coarse  and  green  fodders 
is  in  direct  ratio  to  the  percentage  of  solid  matter  that  may  be  extracted  by 
boiling  water. 

Digestibility  of  phosphoric  acid.  In  some  special  cases,  the  addition  of  a  lime 
phosphate  to  a  fodder  may  render  excellent  services;  it  may  be  essential  to 
secure  a  complete  nutritive  effect,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  fodder  considered  as  a  whole  has  undergone  very  little  change.  In 
case  of  young  cattle  this  is  especially  important  in  certain  districts  where 
soils  are  deficient  in  phosphoric  acid,  as  the  crops  also  suffer  in  this  direc- 
tion and  a  lime  phosphate  should  be  added  to  rations  of  full-grown  animals. 
Many  experiments  prove  that  the  calcic  phosphate  is  assimilated  in  the  intes- 
tinal canal  and  supplies  the  deficiency  when  needed.  When  coarse  fodders 
are  fed  alone,  very  little  phosphoric  acid  is  found  in  the  urine.  When  feed- 
ing milch  cows  the  phosphoric  acid  is  especially  important;  in  this,  as  in  other 
cases  if  more  is  fed  than  is  needed,  the  excess  is  thrown  out  in  the  excrement. 
An  interesting  fact  relating  to  this  question  is  that  the  urine  of  carnivora  and 
herbivora  is  identical  when  they  are  fed  on  milk  or  when  starved  and  compelled 
to  live  on  their  own  substance.  This  fact  shows  almost  beyond  cavil  that  when 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.         353 

there  is  a  difference  it  must  be  attributed  to  the  ration  used.  The  percentage 
of  lime  entering  a  ration  has  also  an  important  influence  upon  the  phosphoric 
acid  found  in  the  urine,  for  the  reason  that  phosphates  are  formed  and  are 
either  assimilated  or  rejected  as  the  case  may  be.  When  feeding  beets  in  some 
special  cases,  calcic  phosphate  may  be  replaced  by  calcic  carbonate. 

Digestibility  of  salt.  In  discussing  fodders  in  general  the  importance  of  salt 
was  pointed  out.  and  at  present  it  is  well  to  say  that  sodic  chlorid  is  more  of 
a  condiment  than  an  actual  food,  as  it  stimulates  the  organs  by  indirect  means 
and  thus  increases  the  digestibility  of  other  fodders.  From  the  experiments  of 
Salzmiinde.  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  action  of  salt  is  very  variable;  some- 
times it  appears  to  favor  digestion,  and  then  again  it  has  a  retarding  action. 
It  is  a  mistake,  from  a  fattening  point  of  view,  to  confound  the  advantages  to 
be  derived  from  forcing  consumption  of  fodders  by  exciting  the  appetite,  with 
what  occurs  when  the  weight  of  an  animal  is  augmented  by  a  complete  diges- 
tion and  consequent  assimilation  of  the  food  furnished,  as  an  animal  may 
consume  more  than  it  can  assimilate  and  throw  out  the  surplus  in  excrements. 

Digestibility  of  a*h.  Potassa  of  fodders  does  not  appear  to  be  utilized  during 
digestion,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  95  to  97  per  cent,  is  found  in  the  excre- 
ments. The  advantages  of  potassic  phosphate  do  not  come  within  the  scope  of 
this  present  writing  as  they  refer  to  swine  feeding  with  special  meat  com- 
pounds. Magnesia  is  partly  utilized;  just  how,  remains  to  be  demonstrated. 
As  a  general  thing  20  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  total  magnesia  of  a  fodder  is  found 
in  the  excrement,  while  of  lime  95  per  cent,  is  utilized,  leaving  but  5  per 
cent,  in  excrement.  Sulphuric  acid  and  chlorin  apparently  take  no  part  in 
the  assimilation  of  the  body,  and  what  applies  to  them  may  be  said  of  all  other 
mineral  elements,  etc..  which  the  fodder  contains. 

These  facts  should  be  sufficient  to  convince  the  farmers  of  the  importance  of 
carefully  collecting  both  liquid  and  solid  excrements  for  use  upon  the  soil  as 
fertilizers.  It  is  too  frequently  maintained  that  beets,  for  example,  exhaust 
the  soil,  forgetting  that  by  proper  rotation  of  crops  and  fertilizer  utilization, 
the  fertility  may  be  indefinitely  maintained. 

Digestion. — Cattle  in  general.  The  main  object  of  digestion  is  to  bring 
about  an  assimilation  which  is  necessary  to  build  up  the  wastes  of  the  body. 
The  blood  being  the  principal  distributor,  the  liquids  or  solids  to  be  utilized 
must  pass  by  osmosis  through  the  membranes  of  the  various  organs  in  which 
they  are  received.  The  principle  of  osmosis  enables  the  crystalloids  to 
move  through  the  tissue  while  the  colloids  or  gum-like  substances  cannot 
pa.^s.  It  is  important  to  note  that  the  passage  in  question  depends  upon  the 
nature  of  the  substance.  In  some  cases  no  transformation  need  be  effected;  in 
others  chemical  combinations  are  necessary.  These  modifications,  taken  as  a 
whole,  are  what  we  call  digestion.  It  is  important  not  to  confound  laboratory 
chemical  changes  with  those  of  the  many  digestive  processes.  The  entire 
transformations  of  what  might  be  called  digestive  chemistry,  are  very  different 
from  what  is  admitted  as  being  true  chemistry  as  now  taught  in  the  text  books, 
and  considerable  confusion  might  arise  if  the  two  were  not  separately  con- 


354     FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

sidered.  Digestion  taken  as  a  whole  depends  upon  the  mouth,  gullet,  stomach, 
small  and  large  intestines,  and  the  several  secretions.  In  the  mouth,  the  lips, 
teeth  and  tongue,  all  have  special  functions.  Farm  animals  when  living 
under  natural  conditions,  are  compelled  to  hunt  for  their  food;  they  thus  take 
more  exercise  and  develop  more  muscle  than  when  stall-fed.  Ruminating 
animals  draw  up  their  food  with  their  tongue,  which  always  has  a  rough  sur- 
face; the  shape  of  their  lips  and  teeth  is  such  as  to  offer  but  little  assistance 
in  collecting  food.  Horses  on  the  other  hand  use  their  lips  and  with  the 
assistance  of  the  incisor  teeth  on  the  lower  jaw  cut  the  grass  or  herbs  found 
in  pasturage.  Cattle  when  using  their  tongue  give  their  heads  a  swinging 
motion  which  breaks  the  tuft  of  grass  held  by  the  tongue  and  pressed  against 
the  lips.  The  nutrient  thus  collected  is  crushed  by  the  teeth  on  the  lower  jaw 
against  the  hard  bone-like  substance  of  the  upper  maxillary.  The  cheeks  help 
considerably  in  either  passing  the  semi-crushed  or  ground  product  from  one 
side  to  another,  or  holding  it  during  mastication. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  nearly  all  the  herbivorous  animals  the  lower  jaw  is 
much  smaller  than  the  upper.  It  frequently  happens  that  when  one  side  is 
working,  the  other  is  separated  nearly  an  inch.  On  the  other  hand,  sheep- 
grazing  means  that  the  field  is  eaten  almost  to  the  surface  of  the  ground;  the 
horse  is  more  wasteful,  and  cattle  still  more  so.  In  the  mouth  the  various 
salivary  glands  secrete  special  fluids  of  different  consistency  and  composition, 
which  each  have  special  functions  to  fulfill;  taken  collectively  they  are  known 
as  saliva,  and  contain  about  1  per  cent,  solid  matter. 

The  saliva  proper  consists  mainly  of  water;  besides  mucus,  it  contains  albu- 
min, alkaline  carbonates,  alkaline  chlorids,  alkaline  phosphates,  and  a  sub- 
stance known  as  ptyalin,  a  ferment  having  a  very  important  function  to  fill, 
which  consists  in  converting  starch  into  sugar,  a  transformation  that  occurs 
mainly  in  the  stomach  in  presence  of  other  secretions.  After  mastication,  the 
food  is  soon  shaped  into  a  rounded  mass  or  bolus,*  which  form  allows  its  pas- 
sage into  the  throat  with  the  least  possible  difficulty.  The  time  or  duration 
of  mastication,  varies  with  the  animal;  practical  experiments  appear  to  show 
that  a  horse  needs  one  and  a  half  hours  to  masticate  four  pounds  of  hay,  dur- 
ing which  interval  there  will  be  formed  about  sixty  boluses.  The  horse  in  its 
normal  state  can  bring  its  teeth  together  some  seventy  times  per  minute,  when 
there  is  an  ample  flow  of  saliva.  The  periods  change,  and  Colin' s  experiments 
show  that  when  all  the  saliva  is  allowed  to  pour  into  the  mouth,  the  duration 
of  mastication  for  one  bolus  is  about  32  seconds;  if  only  one  of  the  parotid 
glands  is  open,  the  duration  is  34  seconds,  and  with  both  closed,  the  period  is 
about  75  seconds.  During  these  periods  the  number  of  strokes  of  the  teeth 
vary  from  38  to  74.  It  is  not  necessary  to  give  similar  examples  for  other 
animals.  For  the  horse  it  was  found  that  the  saliva  secretion  amounted  to 
about  12  Ibs.  of  saliva  per  hour  during  hay  feeding;  with  green  food  about 
half  its  weight  of  saliva  is  needed. 

*The  size  of  a  bolus  varies  with  the  animal;  for  an  ox  it  is  twice  the  size  that  it  is  for 
a  horse. 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.        355 

Foods  after  being  partly  masticated,  pass  into  the  gullet  and  fall  into  the 
paunch;  here  they  remain  for  a  reasonable  time,  and  soften  in  contact  with  saliva 
swallowed;  those  portions  that  are  dissolved  pass  through  into  the  second  stom- 
ach (recticnlum),  then  into  a  third  and  fourth  stomach  (manifolds  and  rennet). 
The  coarser  portions  that  have  not  been  sufficiently  masticated  remain  in  the 
recticulum  where  they  collect  into  a  boll  shape,  when  by  special  contraction 
of  the  esophagean  canal  they  return  into  the  mouth  and  are  again  masticated 
and  mixed  with  saliva;  when  this  operation  is  completed,  this  food  passes 
again  through  the  esophagus  into  the  third  stomach  or  manifolds;  by  a 
special  arrangement  of  muscles  it  cannot  again  return  to  the  mouth;  from  the 
manifolds  it  reaches  the  fourth  stomach  (rennet).  In  perfectly  matured  ani- 
mals the  liquids  all  fall  into  the  paunch  where  they  remain  but  a  short  time. 
Before  a  calf  is  weaned,  the  food  passes  into  the  rennet  without  undergoing  the 
preliminary  stages  that  occur  later;  in  fact  the  first  three  stomachs  remain 
during  this  early  stage  in  an  almost  embryonic  condition. 

This  process  continues  until  the  paunch  is  almost  entirely  empty.  Between 
meals  the  emptying  does  not  seem  to  be  ever  complete,  as  is  made  evident  by 
the  fact  that  in  the  excrement  of  cows  one  finds  a  mixture  of  the  ration  being 
fed  and  the  one  previously  used.  As  pointed  out  elsewhere  in  this  writing. 
four  or  five  days  frequently  elapse  before  any  fodder  is  completely  eliminated 
from  the  system. 

Colin  cites  an  example  of  a  cow  having  fasted  for  two  days  and  still  having 
over  140  Ibs.  of  dry  fodder  in  the  several  compartments  of  its  stomach.  From 
the  time  the  bolus  enters  the  stomach,  it  is  kept  in  constant  motion,  being 
more  and  more  salivated  with  a  fluid  known  as  gastric  juice.  The  total 
volume  of  this  fluid  secreted  during  twenty -four  hours  is  enormous,  and 
some  authorities  assert  that  it  may  reach  one-fourth  of  the  weight  of  the 
bodv.  It  contains  water  in  considerable  proportion,  also  special  ferments, 
chlorids  of  sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  and  ammonia,  also  hydrochloric 
acid,  ferric  and  magnesium  phosphate.  The  principal  ferment  is  pepsin, 
which  depends  upon  a  diluted  acid  for  its  action  upon  foods.  The  main  func- 
tion of  gastric  juices  is  that  of  converting  albuminoids  into  peptones. 

After  leaving  the  fourth  stomach,  the  food  passes  into  the  small  intestine, 
where  it  comes  in  contact  with  very  important  secretions,  such  as  bile  and 
pancreatic  juice.  The  bile  is  green  in  color,  gives  an  alkaline  or  neutral  re- 
action and  is  secreted  by  the  liver.  Its  composition  varies  with  the  animal; 
beside  water  and  solids,  it  contains  certain  salts  lecithin  and  cholesterin,  fats, 
mucin  and  coloring  substances,  also  inorganic  salts.  An  ox,  according  to 
Colin,  will  throw  out  5.7  Ibs.  of  bile  per  diem,  while  a  horse  secretes  13  Ibs.; 
there  is  a  continued  flow  during  the  passage  of  the  food  through  the  intestines. 
The  principal  function  of  .bile  is  that  of  aiding  in  the  absorption  of  fats:  some 
of  the  fat  is  transformed  into  glycerin  and  fatty  acids.  There  follows  a  soap 
formation  due  to  their  combination  with  the  alkalies  of  the  bile;  this  soap 
helps  the  passage  through  the  membranes  of  the  intestines  which  assists  in 
assimilation.  Through  the  intervention  of  bile,  food  does  not  decompose 
during  its  passage  through  the  intestines.  There  is  another  fluid  also  of  very 


356  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

great  importance,  which  is  the  pancreatic  juice;  it  is,  as  its  name  implies, 
secreted  by  the  pancreas  and  enters  the  intestines  jointly  with  the  bile.  These 
two  secretions  by  their  combination  have  some  role  to  fill  which  they  cannot 
accomplish  when  acting  separately.  The  pancreatic  fluid  like  the  ptyalin  of 
saliva  helps  to  convert  starch  into  sugar;  one  gram  is  said  to  be  sufficient  to 
convert  40  kilos  of  starch  into  sugar.  The  pancreatic  juice  converts  fat  into 
salty  acids  and  glycerin,  and  will  change  albuminoids  into  peptones;  it  will 
effect  this  transformation  even  in  an  alkaline  solution. 

Food,  during  its  passage  through  the  intestine,  undergoes  an  absorption  or 
osmotic  action.  The  small  intestines  are  lined  with  protruding  particles, 
called  '*  villi,"  whose  role  is  to  separate  from  the  fluids,  with  which  they  come 
into  contact,  the  fat,  sugar,  peptones  and  salts;  these  are  forced  to  pass  through 
the  ducts  of  the  lymphatic  system.  The  fluid  thus  formed  is  known  as  chyle, 
and,  owing  to  the  fat  held  in  solution,  it  has  a  milk-like  appearance. 

During  all  these  chemical  and  physical  transformations,  considerable  inter- 
change occurs  of  which  we  know  comparatively  little.  Besides  the  fluids 
mentioned  which  act  upon  foods  during  their  passage  through  the  intestinal 
canal,  there  are  other  secretions  helping  assimilation;  for  example,  in  the 
small  intestine  there  is  a  special  gland  secretion  which  like  the  active  principle 
of  saliva  will  convert  starch  into  sugar.  As  food  progresses  along  the  in- 
testinal canal,  its  nutritive  value  becomes  less  and  less,  and  when  reaching  the 
second  half  of  the  large  intestine  it  is  almost  an  excrement,  its  color  depend- 
ing upon  the  kind  of  fodder  and  the  condition  of  the  bile  at  the  time  of  feed- 
ing. Upon  general  principles,  we  may  admit  that  the  large  intestine  of  cattle 
in  general  serves  as  a  storage  during  the  passage  of  the  fodder  not  entirely 
assimilated;  there  follows  in  the  large  intestine  a  sort  of  digestion  due  to  the 
fermentation  of  cellulose  which  had  thus  far  not  been  dissolved  by  the  action 
of  the  digestive  juices.  In  conclusion,  it  is  to  be  said  that  all  fodders  are 
not  equally  acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juice.  In  cereals,  if  the  starch  cells 
have  not  been  thoroughly  broken,  they  pass  through  the  intestinal  canal 
almost  untouched.  In  order  to  get  a  satisfactory  assimilation  in  feeding,  it  is 
desirable  that  the  quantity  of  dry  substance  used  correspond  to  that  actually 
needed  by  the  animal;  it  can  vary  from  30  to  70  Ibs.  per  diem  for  a  full  grown 
ox.  The  organs  of  digestion  may  increase  or  decrease  their  capacity  as  the 
occasion  may  demand.  Without  doubt,  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  feed- 
ing a  uniform  ration.  The  condition  of  digestion  may  constantly  be  ascer- 
tained by  the  analysis  of  excrement. 

Diffusion.  Modern  beet-sugar  factories  extract  the  sugar  from  beet 
slices  by  diffusion  in  an  apparatus,  called  a  battery,  each  compartment  of  which 
is  termed  a  diffusor;  hot  water  circulates  from  one  diffusor  to  the  other,  and 
the  sugar  passes  from  the  cells  of  the  tissues  into  the  circulating  water  by  a 
physical  action  known  as  osmatic  diffusion. 

Dried  cossettes.  The  pressed  residuum  cossettes  may  be  submitted  to 
a  special  drying,  the  product  obtained  being  known  as  dried  cossettes. 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.         357 

J)ry  matter.  "When  a  substance  has  been  satisfactorily  desiccated  by 
heat,  there  remains  what  is  known  as  dry  matter. 

Energy.     The  capacity  of  doing  work;  the  power  of  an  organism. 

Ether  extract.  In  most  text  books,  the  ether  extract  is  called  "  fat." 
Its  estimation  is  very  simple,  consisting  in  drying  the  fodder  and  adding 
ether  which  will  dissolve  the  fat  and  like  substances.  Its  percentage  varies 
very  considerably  in  plants  in  general. 

Fatty  substances.  The  fatty  substances  are  those  which  may  be  dis- 
solved from  feeding  stuffs  with  ether,  and  necessarily  include  coloring  matter, 
wax,  etc.  The  fat  is  assimilated  and  burned  to  form  heat  and  consequently 
energy,  or  it  is  stored  up  and  deposited  as  fat  when  taken  in  excess. 

During  the  fat  combustion  the  heat  of  the  animal's  body  is  supplied.  An 
exertion  of  any  kind  is  followed  by  fat  burning,  just  as  fuel  is  burned  under  a 
boiler.  Fat  necessarily  plays  a  very  important  role  during  fattening  of  live 
stock  as  it  accumulates  in  different  parts  of  the  body,  gives  it  weight  and  in- 
creases its  value  from  a  butcher's  standpoint.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  only  a 
small  percentage  of  the  fat  enters  the  blood  vessels  forming  part  of  the  intes- 
tines, the  larger  portion  passing  through  the  lymphatics.  While  it  is  gener- 
ally admitted  that  fats  undergo  very  little  change  when  forming  part  of  the 
circulation,  the  fact  nevertheless  remains  that  the  role  they  subsequently  play 
in  the  tissues  varies  with  the  animal  fed. 

Experiments  have  been  made  10  uetermine  the  heat  units  of  feeds,  and  those 
relating  to  fat  are  of  an  exceptional  interest.  For  this  purpose  a  calorimeter 
is  used,  the  substance  to  be  tested  is  burned  therein,  and  the  heat  given  off  is 
absorbed  by  water.  Prof.  Runner's  experiments  show  that  235  parts  of  lean 
meat,  when  burned  in  the  apparatus,  give  off' the  same  heat  as  100  parts  of  fat. 
A  gram  of  fat  is  shown  to  yield  over  twice  the  calories  yielded  by  a  gram  of 
carbohydrates;  for  feeding  purposes  it  is  found  that  they  are  equally  valuable 
as  influencing  protein  consumption,  hence  they  may  be  substituted  one  for  the 
other.  It  must  be  noted  that  fodders  containing  considerable  fat  are  difficult 
to  digest  and  are  expensive  and  therefore  should  be  used  with  certain  discre- 
tion. AY  hen  considering  ruminating  animals  in  general,  one  had  better  rely 
upon  carbohydrates  which  most  feeds  contain  in  reasonable  proportions,  and, 
which  within  themselves  are  furnished  at  a  comparatively  low  cost;  further- 
more, as  they  decrease  the  daily  protein  consumption,  they  keep  the  animal 
fed  in  a  good  healthy  condition  with  a  very  restricted  absorption  of  nitrog- 
enous substances.  Respecting  the  influence  of  fat  upon  a  decreased  pro- 
tein consumption,  Yoit's  experiments  demonstrate  beyond  cavil,  that  the  fat 
when  fed  alone,  rather  tends  to  increase  than  decrease  the  protein  assimilated. 
This  fat  diet  appears  to  have  very  little  influence  upon  the  fat  already  stored 
up  in  the  body,  and  as  the  fattening  of  live  stock  continues,  the  process  of  fat 
deposits  is  more  and' more  difficult  from  the  feeder's  standpoint.  Experiments 
have  been  made  in  feeding  fat  and  protein  alone.  When  the  quantity  of  pro- 
tein fed  was  the  same  from  day  to  day  and  the  amount  of  fat  increased,  the  fat 


358  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

deposited  was  proportional  to  this  increase.  Other  combinations  showed  that 
the  fat  deposited  from  protein  was  more  tenacious  than  the  fat  having  a  fat- 
like  origin.  Under  certain  conditions  of  disease,  large  quantities  of  fat  are 
deposited  in  the  liver  and  other  organs  of  the  body,  and  it  forms  at  the  expense 
of  the  protein.  It  is  said  that  the  greatest  amount  of  fat  that  can  thus  be 
formed  is  51  per  cent.  At  the  New  York  experiment  station,  it  has  been 
demonstrated  that  the  fat  in  the  food  explained  the  fat  in  the  cow's  milk 
especially  during  the  last  half  of  the  feeding  period.  It  is  important  to  note 
that  the  fat  percentage  is  very  variable  in  some  cases.  In  these  experi- 
ments it  was  pointed  out  that  the  fat  in  question  was  the  so-called  crude  fat  or 
ether  extract  which  contains  other  substances  such  as  chlorophyl  in  the  solu- 
tion. As  fat  can  be  formed  from  carbohydrates,  as  has  been  demonstrated  for 
most  animals,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  cow  is  not  an  exception. 
The  transformation  was  thought  impossible  during  the  early  stages  of  fattening, 
but  at  present  it  is  considered  a  certainty  and  it  has  been  well  proved  by  the 
Lawes  and  Gilbert  experiments  that  the  fatty  acids  are  absorbed  and  subse- 
quently deposited  as  fat. 

The  Pettenkofer  and  Voit  experiments  showed  that  100  parts  of  fat  were 
about  equal  on  an  average  to  175  parts  of  carbohydrates.  The  amount  of  fat 
in  the  body  is  very  variable;  while  in  the  case  of  a  fat  calf  it  may  be  nearly  15 
Ibs.  per  100  Ibs.  live  weight,  it  is  30  Ibs.  for  a  fattened  ox,  and  there  are  two 
pounds  of  fat  constituents  for  one  pound  of  lean  meat. 

Fat  exists  in  the  blood  in  minute  quantities,  say  not  more  than  0.3  percent. 
In  the  bones  and  nerves  it  is  found  in  greater  amounts.  It  is  especially  found 
under  the  skin.  Most  of  the  fat  cells  of  a  living  animal  contain  transparent 
fat. 

From  whatever  part  of  the  body  the  fat  is  taken,  it  is  almost  identical  in 
composition  and  furthermore,  if  existing  in  plants  or  in  the  body  of  an  animal, 
its  composition  is  always  about  the  same,  carbon  76  per  cent.,  hydrogen  12, 
oxygen  11.5. 

Experiments  relative  to  the  digestibility  of  fat  cannot  be  considered  as  en- 
tirely satisfactory  in  their  results;  they  have,  however,  considerable  scientih'c 
value  for  the  estimation  of  the  feeding  value  of  a  fodder.  The  poorer  the 
fodder  in  fat,  the  greater  will  be  the  error  committed.  While  such  modes  of 
estimation  are  not  mathematical,  they  allow  one  feeding  stuff"  to  be  compared 
with  another. 

The  production  of  fat  may  be  calculated  in  advance  based  upon  the  gain  br 
loss  of  carbon.  To  carry  on  a  series  of  experiments  of  this  kind  demands  very 
delicate  appliances,  in  which  one  may  measure  very  accurately  the  air  thrown 
off  by  the  lungs  and  perspiration,  etc.,  besides  that  found  in  the  urea,  etc.  On 
this  subject,  Armsby  says:  "If  the  comparison  of  the  nitrogen  in  fodder  and 
excrements  show's  that  the  body  has  neither  gained  nor  lost  albuminoids,  then 
the  carbon  gained  or  lost  was  all  in  the  form  of  fat.  Every  100  parts  of  fat 
contain  76  parts  of  carbon,  therefore  every  76  parts  of  carbon  shown  by  the 
experiment  to  have  been  gained  or  lost  represent  100  parts  of  fat,  or  one  part 
of  carbon  corresponds  to  1.3  parts  of  fat." 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.         359 

According  to  the  old  theory,  which  was  that  the  non-nitrogenous  sub- 
stances had  one  principal  object,  namely,  to  furnish  fuel  to  the  body,  the 
comparative  value  of  fat  and  carbohydrates  was  determined  by  the  amount 
of  heat  easily  produced.  It  was  calculated  that  one  pound  of  fat  produces 
about  2.5  times  the  heat  given  out  by  one  pound  of  carbohydrates.  The  per- 
centage of  fat  contained  in  plants  is  very  variable;  for  beets  it  is  0.1  to  0.2, 
and  in  certain  varieties  of  corn,  it  reaches  8  per  cent.,  while  certain  oil  seeds 
contain  4(1  per  cent.  As  this  is  not  all  extracted  during  the  industrial  methods 
of  extracting  the  oil,  there  remains  a  residuum  containing  8  to  12  per  cent. 

Fermentation  is  the  decomposition  of  varied  molecules  under  the 
action  of  ferments.  Decay,  taken  in  the  general  acceptance  of  the  word,  is  an 
oxidation.  Putrefaction  involves  the  fermentation  of  nitrogenous  substances 
with  the  liberation  of  certain  offensive  gases.  Acetic  fermentation  is  the  con- 
version of  weak  alcohols  into  vinegar.  Butyric  fermentation  is  the  conver- 
sion of  butter-fat  into  butyric  acid.  Lactic  fermentation  is  the  decomposition 
of  milk. 

Fertilizers  are  plant  foods. 

Fibrin.  A  substance  that  does  not  exist  in  an  insoluble  state  in  the 
circulating  blood,  but  separates  in  a  solid  state  shortly  after  the  blood  leaves 
the  body.  It  may  be  obtained  by  stirring  blood  as  it  flows  from  a  living  body; 
the  sticks  used  become  covered  with  a  white  compound.  It  is  tasteless,  and 
when  dried  resembles  albumin.  Fibrin  is  a  proteid. 

Forage  is  a  food  for  horses,  but  it  may  be  applied  to  cattle  in  general  and 
is  another  name  for  feed. 

Fuel  value  is  frequently  measured  in  heat  units  or  calories.  One 
pound  of  digestible  fat  is  estimated  at  9.200  calories;  one  pound  digestible  car- 
bohydrates 4.200;  one  pound  digestible  protein  5.860  «alories.  Knowing  the 
composition  of  any  feeding  stuff,  such  as  beets  for  example,  in  one  hundred 
pounds  there  are  86.5  pounds  water,  1.12  pounds  protein,  10.21  pounds  carbo- 
hydrates. AVhen  these  are  burned  for  furnishing  energy,  work  and  the 
maintenance  of  the  body  there  would  result  an  amount  of  materials  yielding 
49.445  calories. 

Gastric  juice.  A  secretion  of  special  glands  of  the  stomach;  it  con- 
tains an  important  ferment  known  as  pepsin. 

Germs  are  a  portion  of  matter,  having  within  itself  the  tendency  to 
assume  some  living  form;  a  spore,  a  seed  are  examples  of  germs. 

Gestation  is  the  period  the  young  need  for  their  complete  development 
from  time  of  their  conception  until  birth. 

Glucose  is  a  substance  obtained  from  starch  through  the  action  of  a 
ferment;  its  varieties  are  numerous,  among  which  one  may  mention  dextrose 
and  levulose. 

Gluten  meals  and  gluten  feeds.  It  is  difficult  for  the  breeder 
to  exactly  comprehend  the  difference  between  these  two  substances  which 


360  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

are  the  residuum  of  glucose  manufacture,  when  corn  is  used  as  a  basis  of 
the  manufacture  during  the  process  of  starch  separation  from  the  grain.  After 
a  proper  soaking,  lasting  for  several  hours,  etc.,  there  follows  a  straining 
through  bolting  cloths,  the  germs  and  hulls  being  thus  separated.  The 
product  may  be  dried  and  in  some  cases  submitted  to  a  preliminary  treatment 
with  naphtha  to  remove  the  oil,  and  this  product  is  known  as  gluten  feed. 
When  the  final  residuum  in  the  settling  tanks  after  the  oil  is  extracted  is  com- 
bined with  the  germs,  it  is  sold  as  gluten  meals.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the 
latter  contain  between  24  and  38  per  cent,  protein  and  an  average  of  8  per 
cent,  fat,  the  former  contain  12  to  24  per  cent,  protein  and  an  average  of  12.5 
per  cent.  fat.  The  introduction  of  gluten  meals  and  feeds  lias  met  with  some 
difficulty  owing  to  the  possibility  of  their  containing  a  certain  percentage  of 
sulphuric  acid,  which  might  be  pernicious  to  the  general  health  of  the  animal. 
The  question  is  open  to  discussion.  The  product  has  at  present  the  approval 
of  most  of  the  leading  authorities  of  the  country.  The  difference  between  the 
gluten  meals  and  feeds  that  must  not  be  overlooked  is  that  the  former  contain 
more  protein  than  the  latter. 

Glycogen.     This  substance  is  a  carbohydrate  and  is  formed  in  the  liver. 

Glycose  is  another  name  for  glucose. 

Gram  is  equal  to  0.035  ounce;  it  is  one  thousandth  part  of  a  kilogram. 

Gullet.     In  ruminants  the  passage  between  the  mouth  and  first  stomach. 

Glims  In  rations  in  general,  gums  are  frequently  formed  in  very  small 
quantities;  but  in  certain  cases  they  must  be  taken  into  account.  While  gurns 
are  digestible,  modern  experiments  give  very  little  information  as  to  their 
nutritive  value. 

Hectare  is  two  and  a  half  acres  (2.5  acres). 

Hemoglobin  is  a  crystalline  substance  existing  in  the  corpuscles  of 
blood,  and  to  which  their  color  is  due;  it  is  one  of  the  oxygen  carriers  in  the 
circulation. 

Herbivorous  is  a  name  given  to  those  animals  that  feed  on  vegetation. 

Hydraulic  pressing.  During  the  early  periods  of  beet  sngar  manu- 
facture, the  finely  divided  beet  pulp  was  submitted  to  the  action  of  hydraulic 
presses,  but  these  machines  have  now  become  obsolete. 

Hydroscopic.     Property  of  absorbing  moisture  from  the  air. 

Intestines.  Food  during  the  process  of  being  digested  passes  in  its 
journey  through  the  body  through  a  final  canal,  known  as  the  intestines. 

Invert  sugar  is  a  saccharine  substance  found  in  honey;  it  may  be  ob- 
tained by  submitting  cane  sugar  to  the  action  of  dilute  acids. 

Kilogram.     One  kilogram  is  equivalent  to  2.2  Ibs. 

Kilogrammeter  means  the  mechanical  work  capable  of  raising  one 
kilo  to  the  height  of  one  meter.  A  horse-power  is  represented  by  75  kilo- 
grammeters  produced  in  one  second.  On  the  other  hand,  425  kilogrammeters 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL   CONSIDERATIONS.        361 

correspond  to  a  production  of  heat  equivalent  to  a  calorie,  or  the  heat  neces- 
sary to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  kilo  of  water  one  degree  centigrade. 

Kilometer  is  0.62  of  a  mile. 

Lactic  acid.  This  product  is  one  of  the  vegetable  acids  not  to  be  over- 
looked in  the  theory  of  animal  feeding.  It  is  not  thought  to  exist  in  any  vege- 
table product  in  a  normal  state,  but  is  the  outcome  of  some  organic  and  acid 
transformation.  Beets  and  beet  leaves  contain  this  acid,  and  it  is  also  found 
in  the  cossette  residuum. 

During  digestion,  it  appears  to  be  formed  from  the  carbohydrates;  its  action 
under  these  circumstances  is  that  of  effecting  certain  changes  in  the  phosphoric 
acid;  it  penetrates  into  many  of  the  capillaries  and  facilitates  assimilation  of 
certain  nutrients. 

Legumin  is  a  proteid  compound,  and  may  be  considered  as  a  vegetable 
casein. 

Levulose  is  the  sugar  found  in  fruit;  it  is  also  called  fruit  sugar  or 
fructose. 

Lime  must  be  added  to  fodders  consisting  of  beet  cossettes,  etc.  It  is 
needed  for  the  bony  tissue  of  the  body,  and  is  very  frequently  deficient  in  the 
composition  of  most  feeding  stuffs. 

Lime  phosphate  is  a  substance  formed  by  the  combination  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  lime. 

Liter  is  about  l.Oo  quart. 

Lymph  is  the  fluid  in  the  lymphatic  vessels,  and  is  the  filtration  of  the 
liquid  parts  of  the  blood  through  the  tissue  of  the  capillaries. 

Lymphatic.     Pertaining  to  the  lymph. 
Meter  is  about  3.3  feet. 

Methane  is  to  be  found  in  nature,  chiefly  in  marshes,  when  decompo- 
sition of  organic  substances  is  in  progress. 

Micro- organisms  are  organisms  of  microscopic  size. 
Mucous,  a  term  applied  to  tissues  that  secrete  mucus. 

Harrow  ration  means  that  the  ratio  existing  between  the  protein  and 
carbohydrates  is  small.  An  example  of  this  is  cotton-seed  meal,  1:1.2,  in 
which  case  the  protein  is  nearly  equal  to  the  carbohydrates. 

!Xew  process  linseecl  meal.  The  process  is  mainly  based  upon  a 
naphtha-extractive  mode.  The  meal  contains  from  26.5  to  40  per  cent,  pro- 
tein and  an  average  of  3  per  cent.  fat.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  when  its  com- 
position is  compared  with  the  old  process,  the  oil  percentage  is  less  and  the 
protein  percentage  greater;  hence  it  has  of  recent  years  found  many  general 
applications.  It  is  very  discouraging  for  its  advocates  that  the  old  linseed 
meal  appears  to  be  more  digestible  than  the  new.  This  fact  may  be  counter- 
balanced by  the  difference  in  cost  in  some  special  cases. 


362      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

Nitrogenous  feeding-  stuffs.— Classification. 

A.  By-products  subsequent  to  the  extraction  of  oil  or  starch. 

B.  By-products  from  the  manufacture  of  flour,  such  as  wheat  bran. 

C.  Several  kinds  of  seeds. 

D.  Green  and  dried  leguminous  fodders. 

Nutrition  and  excretion.  It  is  through  the  blood  that  all  nutri- 
tion of  the  body  is  affected,  and  when  it  does  not  circulate,  complications  are 
sure  to  follow.  All  transformations  of  the  body  are  formed  and  renewed  by 
the  blood.  In  all  these  modifications,  the  real  action  of  respiration  must 
never  be  overlooked;  consequently  pure  air  is  also  a  most  important  question, 
as  without  it  the  burning  of  the  carbon  is  not  satisfactorily  accomplished,  and 
the  heat  of  the  body  not  maintained.  The  element  carbon  must  also  be  fur- 
nished in  sufficient  quantities;  this  cannot  be  done  through  protein  substances 
alone,  but  to  them  carbohydrates  must  be  added,  otherwise  death  is  sure  to 
follow.  While  water  is  an  important  question  it  need  not,  upon  general 
principles,  give  much  anxiety,  because  it  may  generally  be  had  in  sufficient 
quantities. 

Nutritive  substances,  as  they  first  enter  the  blood,  are  not  in  a  condition  to 
be  entirely  assimilated;  they  must  undergo  certain  changes.  Protein  sub- 
stances that  at  first  do  not  coagulate,  later,  when  acted  upon  by  the  various 
secretions  of  the  stomach,  become  albumin  and  fibrin,  both  of  which  coagu- 
late. Fatty  substances  are  no  longer  discernible;  they  are  almost  entirely  dis- 
solved and  completely  combined  with  alkalies  as  previously  explained.  The 
role  of  the  fat  in  the  blood  varies  as  the  occasion  demands. 

Every  motion  of  the  body  means  a  certain  wear  and  tear,  which  is  directly 
proportional  to  the  effort.  The  worn  out  tissues  are  replaced  by  new  ones 
through  the  intervention  of  the  blood,  due  to  the  combined  process  of  digestion 
and  assimilation.  If  the  animal  is  growing,  allowance  must  be  made,  not  only 
for  waste,  but  also  for  new  flesh  and  bones  formed. 

The  nutritive  substances,  after  being  absorbed  from  the  intestinal  canal, 
soon  undergo  changes  owing  to  their  combination  with  oxygen,  the  used  por- 
tions being  consequently  thrown  out  in  an  oxydized  condition.  This  and  like 
interchanges  represent  the  actual  vital  phenomenon  that  occurs  when  heat  is 
evolved  or  flesh  and  fat  formed.  During  circulation  the  oxygen  of  the  air 
comes  in  contact  with  the  carbon  of  the  blood  to  form  carbonic  acid.  The 
amount  of  gas  formed  and  carbon  consumed  may  be  accurately  determined. 
During  the  continuance  of  circulation,  the  globules  themselves  carry  oxygen 
through  the  body.  An  interesting  comparison  has  been  made  between  the 
blood  circulation  of  the  body,  and  a  river  with  its  tributaries,  upon  which  float 
boats  moving  in  different  directions.  On  the  one  hand  we  have  these  small 
boats  or  globules  chaiged  with  oxygen  floating  in  albumin,  on  the  other  hand 
the  corpuscles  floating  in  the  opposite  direction  carrying  carbonic  acid,  the 
result  of  the  combination  of  oxygen  with  the  carbon.  During  sleep  the 
exportation,  so  to  speak,  of  carbonic  acid  lessens,  but  the  importations  of 
oxygen  increase,  under  which  circumstances  there  is  a  certain  amount  that  is 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.         363 

stored  up  to  be  subsequently  used  the  next  day.  The  amount  of  oxygen 
penetrating  the  blood  is  entirely  independent  of  the  breathing;  but  upon  the 
volume  needed  for  the  combinations  that  follow,  many  factors  have  an  impor- 
tant influence,  such  as  the  kind  of  food  eaten,  the  composition  of  the  blood, 
etc  Evidently,  when  food  consists  mainly  of  protein  substances,  the  number 
of  blood  corpuscles  is  increased.  The  dividing  up  of  the  compounds  into 
simple  forms  then  becomes  more  complicated,  and  the  oxygen  consumed  is 
greater.  Experiments  by  Henneberg  upon  oxen  appear  to  demonstrate  that 
during  sleep  they  store  up  a  certain  amount  of  oxygen  that  is  transformed  into 
carbonic  acid  during  work.  Under  these  circumstances  we  know  the  amount 
of  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  carbon  contained  in  the  fodder,  and  the  amount  in 
excrement  and  the  amount  deposited  in  the  body.  It  is  possible  to  ascertain 
the  percentage  of  each  that  was  consumed  in  the  formation  of  carbonic  acid 
and  water  that  was  subsequently  absorbed  in  the  body.  The  percentage  of 
oxygen  taken  from  the  air  is  determined  by  the  use  of  the  Pettenkofer 
apparatus  described  elsewhere.  Evidently  a  certain  equilibrium  between 
night  and  day  is,  on  the  long  run.  established.  It  must  be  understood  that  in 
these  transformations  the  nutritive  elements  must  first  pass  through  the 
tissues  to  enter  the  circulation  and  thus  undergo  a  certain  dissociation  before 
the  combination  with  oxygen  can  be  complete.  It  necessarily  follows  that  by 
reason  of  excessive  work,  more  tissue  is  consumed.  The  oxygen  demanded 
for  its  burning  must  also  increase.  Naturally  when  the  wear  and  tear  is 
greater  than  the  repair,  the  animal  gets  thin.  The  reverse  is  also  true,  and 
upon  this  fact  the  fattening  of  an  animal  depends.  In  regard  to  this  it 
might  be  pointed  out  that  in  feeding  rations,  frequent  mistakes  occur,  as  when 
a  poor  ration  follows  a  rich  one.  the  falling  off  in  fat,  etc.,  represents  more 
money  than  the  value  of  fodder  saved.  It  takes  very  much  less  time  to 
destroy  than  to  build  up. 

The  repair  of  wastes  in  the  formation  of  new  cells  is  a  very  complicated 
question.  The  skin,  nails,  hair,  etc.— in  other  words  every  part  of  the  body — 
are  being  gradually  renewed.  This  wear  and  tear  is  evidently  very  much 
greater  with  young  growing  animals  than  it  is  with  such  as  are  more  fully 
grown. 

The  development  of  the  bony  frame  is  most  important,  and  as  it  is  com- 
posed of  saline  principles,  the  fodder  must  contain  those  salts  that  are  requisite 
to  repair  loss.  Hay  and  cereals  of  all  kinds  fill  the  required  conditions.  Once 
the  bones  and  nerves  have  attained  their  full  development  they  undergo  very 
little  change.  From  what  has  just  been  said,  the  importance  of  phosphates  in 
rations  is  evident.  \Vhen  an  animal  has  attained  its  full  development,  it  has 
a  tendency  to  deposit  fat,  a  condition  much  desired  in  the  various  methods 
of  fattening.  A  pound  of  fat  meat  may  bring  twice  the  money  upon  the 
market  that  a  pound  of  lean  meat  from  another  animal  would  bring.  Several 
French  experiments  by  Boussingault  and  others  have  demonstrated  beyond 
cavil  that  carbohydrates  are  most  important  fat  formers,  and  when  fed  in  ex- 
cess of  what  is  needed,  they  are  deposited  in  the  fat  cells  of  the  body.  This 
subject  is  discussed  in  full  in  another  chapter;  however,  for  the  present,  we 


3f)4      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

desire  to  call  attention  to  sugar  and  its  importance.  This  hydrocarbon  is  rap- 
idly burned  during  the  process  of  respiration.  The  amount  ®f  sugar  that 
enters  the  digestive  canal  during  twenty-four  hours  is  very  great,  being  about 
20  Ibs.  for  a  full-grown  ox,  yet  the  blood  itself  contains  only  a  small  percent- 
age of  it.  Nowhere  does  it  appear  to  be  deposited  and  its  dissociation  is 
extremely  rapid  as  compared  with  the  assimilation  of  other  elements.  In  fact, 
carbohydrates  in  general  are  rapidly  absorbed.  The  fatty  substances  of  a  fod- 
der help  to  sustain  respiration  and  aid  the  production  of  animal  heat;  they 
form  a  sort  of  emulsion,  combining  with  alkalies  of  the  pancreatic  fluid  and 
bile.  The  fatty  oils  when  in  excess  in  a  fodder  frequently  produce  a  bad  effect 
upon  the  animal's  health.  This  fat  formation  is  always  limited.  When  starch 
is  in  excess  in  a  ration,  it  is  always  found  in  the  excrement.  Fat  may  be 
formed  from  protein  substances.  Whatever  be  the  source,  the  excess  should 
undergo  a  complete  oxidation,  and  the  amount  that  has  been  deposited  either 
as  fat  or  in  milk,  depends  upon  several  conditions  too  complicated  to  be  con- 
sidered in  this  writing.  An  interesting  fact  that  is  difficult  to  explain  is  that 
fat  deposited  from  albuminoids  oxidizes  more  rapidly  than  the  fat  that  had  been 
previously  deposited  from  other  sources.  We  cannot  pass  unnoticed  the  action 
of  glycogen,  which  may  also  be  considered  a  carbohydrate.  This  element  is 
found  in  the  liver  in  quantities  depending  upon  what  the  animal  eats;  its  pro- 
perties are  very  like  sugar,  as  regards  its  effect  upon  polarized  light,  but  it  has 
no  action  on  a  copper  solution.  This  sugar  appears  to  be  constantly  renewing 
itself,  but  the  process  is  not  known.  Within  what  limits  this  glycogen  is 
a  reserve  for  the  sugar  needed  by  the  body  would  be  difficult  to  say.  The  car- 
bohydrates appear  to  play  their  most  active  parts  during  the  last  period  of  fat- 
tening. The  direct  action  of  the  elements  of  this  group  is  understood  to  a 
reasonable  extent,  but  there  are  many  facts  relating  to  it  that  continue  to  re- 
main a  mystery.  It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  the  various  theories  that 
attempt  to  show  that  glycogen  has  a  protein  origin,  being  held  in  reserve 
until  needed. 

In  all  questions  of  nutrition,  the  nervous  system  takes  a  most  active  part, 
but  what  precise  action  foods  have  upon  the  nervous  system  continues  to  be 
open  to  conjecture.  We  do  know,  however,  that  certain  foods  are  more  ex- 
citing than  others,  this  action  varying  in  each  special  case;  just  as  very  nervous 
individuals  are  seldom  fat,  so  are  nervous  animals  most  difficult  to  fatten. 
A  problem  of  the  future  will  be  to  discover  some  food  that  can,  in  a 
measure,  overcome  excessive  nervousness.  The  question  remains  to  be  de- 
cided whether  by  proper  care  a  new  race  could  not  be  created  in  which  the 
characteristics  of  the  ancestor  could  be  overcome;  but  as  matters  now  exist,  the 
complication,  whatever  it  be,  has  a  tendency  to  increase,  and  until,  diminished, 
the  science  of  cattle  feeding  must  suffer  from  the  want  of  more  accurate 
methods.  The  rational  system  is  kindness  and  due  consideration  for  the 
animal  under  special  observation.  It  is  interesting  within  a  reasonable  extent, 
to  follow  the  various  elements  not  yet  assimilated  which  have  been  taken  up 
by  the  blood;  their  separation  is  effected  by  special  organs  known  as  glands, 
all  of  these  having  special  functions  to  fulfill.  It  is  well  not  to  confound  the 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.         365 

glands  that  excrete  with  the  organs  that  secrete.  For  example,  at  certain 
periods  at  the  end  of  gestation  certain  glands  forming  part  of  the  udder  ex- 
crete a  fluid  called  colostrum  (rich  in  salts  and  albumin).  This  had  pre- 
viously been  a  yellowish  mucus,  later  was  made  up  of  a  series  of  fat  or  milk 
globules,  and  changed  its  condition  just  previous  to  the  birth  of  the  progeny. 
The  fat  globules  do  not  hold  together,  and  later,  when  the  actual  milk  has 
been  secreted,  the  colostrum  globules  disappear  to  be  replaced  by  regular  milk 
globules,  surrounded  by  a  thin  covering  of  casein,  that  are  very  numerous 
until  the  calf  is  weaned.  All  milk,  whatever  be  its  source,  contains  enough 
nutrients  to  sustain  life. 

The  evaporation  from  the  body  or  perspiration  is  one  of  the  most  important 
forms  of  excretion,  and  is  more  complicated  than  many  suppose.  Besides 
watery  vapor,  carbonic  acid,  acetic  and  lactic  acids,  certain  special  organic 
and  inorganic  substances  are  present,  sodic  chlorid,  phosphates,  etc.,  being 
found  among  the  latter.  The  oily  matter  thrown  oft'  through  the  skin  is  ex- 
creted by  special  glands.  Jn  a  full-grown  ox,  this  excretion  attains  consider- 
able proportions.  Experiments  of  Henneberg  and  Hohmann  show  that  this 
water  evaporation  through  lungs  and  skin  can  reach  22  pounds  per  diem. 
During  this  excretion  very  little  nitrogen  escapes  in  the  same  direction.  On 
the  other  hand,  Grouven  shows  that  considerable  ammonia  is  thrown  off. 
The  carbon  escapes  mainly  through  the  lungs,  but  much  is  also  excreted 
through  the  skin  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid,  as  previously  mentioned.  The 
hydrogen  combining  with  oxygen  is  eliminated  mainly  in  the  form  of  water. 
The  most  important  excretion  of  the  body  is  done  by  the  kidneys  through 
which  the  blood  passes.  In  these  the  nitrogenous  substances  formed  by  the 
decomposition  of  the  albumin  of  the  body  are  removed.  The  secretions  from 
the  kidneys  are  received  in  the  bladder  before  being  expelled  from  the  body. 
The  most  important  element  in  the  urine  of  cattle  is  urea,  a  substance  very 
rich  in  nitrogen,  also  hippuricacid  which  corresponds  to  uric  acid  in  carnivor- 
ous animals,  the  inorganic  substances  being  alkaline  bi-carbonates.  Phos- 
phoric acid  appeai-s  to  be  absent  from  the  urine  of  cattle.  Urea  is  rapidly 
eliminated  from  the  blood  in  a  healthly  animal  under  which  circumstances  it 
is  not  deposited.  When  the  deposit  does  occur,  there  is  something  faulty  in 
the  working  of  the  organs,  and  complications,  such  as  rheumatic  gout,  are  sure 
to  follow.  In  a  good  healthy  full-grown  animal  the  amount  of  urea  thrown 
off  per  diem  attains  about  one  pound  in  weight. 

Urea  crystallizes  easily  and  is  soluble  in  water.  During  the  phenomenon 
of  osmosis,  these  crystals  pass  in  and  out  with  great  ease.  Henneberg  says 
that  the  33.5  parts  of  nitrogen  contained  in  100  parts  of  anhydrous  albumin 
may  be  separated  as  urea.  The  remaining  albumin  combines  with  12.3  parts 
water  to  form  51 .4  parts  fat  and  27.4  parts  carbonic  acid.  The  amount  of  urine 
excreted  varies  very  much  with  the  animal  and  the  kind  of  food  used,  some 
individuals  having  greater  power  of  assimilation  than  others.  Upon  general 
principles,  it  may  be  admitted  that  the  richer  the  fodder  is  in  protein  sub- 
stances, the  greater  will  be  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  in  the  urine.  Protein 
substances  when  fed  in  excess  of  actual  requirements  should  be  eliminated 


366  FEEDING    WITH    SUGAR    BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

entirely,  but  this  is  seldom  the  case.  In  fact,  as  previously  explained,  the 
theory  of  cattle  feeding  depends  largely  upon  the  subject  of  excretion,  and  the 
influence  of  a  ration  upon  an  animal  may  be  thus  determined  to  a  nicety. 
Great  care,  should  be  taken 'to  collect  every  drop  of  urine,  as  numerous  im- 
portant experiments  demonstrate  that  all  the  nitrogen  that  has  been  separated 
from  the  albuminoids  during  the  process  of  assimilation  is  found  in  this  ex- 
cretion. In  such  experiments,  there  is  always  a  certain  loss  of  nitrogen  that 
is  difficult  to  account  for;  it  is  very  small,  and  is,  in  most  cases,  supposed  to 
be  due  to  faulty  methods  of  analysis.  Consequently  every  effort  should  be 
made  to  absorb  the  urine  by  a  suitable  amount  of  straw.  What  has  just  been 
said  applies  not  only  to  cases  where  the  excrement  is  to  be  analyzed,  but  also 
when  it  is  to  be  used  as  a  fertilizer. 

We  may  conclude  that  a  rich  fodder  offers  a  double  advantage  to  the  farmer. 
On  the  one  hand  there  is  a  gain  in  flesh,  and  on  the  other  the  quality  of 
manure  obtained  is  better.  An  interesting  calculation  might  be  made  show- 
ing that  it  is  not  always  cheaper  to  purchase  manure  than  fodder.  It  has 
time  and  again  been  demonstrated  that  it  is  possible  to  purchase  feeding  stuffs 
and  combine  them  in  a  suitable  ration,  so  as  to  feed  for  maintenance,  and  not 
obtain  an  increase  in  weight  but  yet  obtain  manure  as  cheap  as  if  purchased 
direct  from  a  neighboring  farm.  Consequently,  no  well  organized  farm  should 
be  without  a  certain  number  of  cattle,  whatever  be  the  advantage  of  a  chemical 
fertilizer;  for  there  is  always  a  factor,  small  it  is  true,  but  yet  felt  after  a  term, 
that  chemical  fertilizers  do  not  furnish.  When  it  is  a  question  of  beet  pulp 
feeding,  this  is  especially  true;  the  elements  that  are  deficient  maybe  supplied 
at  a  nominal  cost. 

]STitrates.  Very  little  attention  need  be  given  to  nitrates,  as  they  are 
considered  to  be  without  nutritive  value. 

Nitrogen-free  extract.  Contains  starch,  sugar,  gums,  pentosane, 
etc.,  after  deducting  from  the  total  dry  matter  the  ether  free  extract,  crude 
fibre  and  ash.  If  to  the  nitrogen-free  extract  we  add  the  crude  fibre,  we  obtain 
what  is  generally  termed  carbohydrates.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the 
nitrogen-free  extract  of  different  fodders.  For  example,  in  rye  flour  it  is  70 
per  cent.,  while  in  certain  corn  roughage  it  is  only  12  per  cent.  Experiments 
appear  to  prove  that  all  the  nitrogen-free  extract,  that  may  be  actually 
digested,  has  about  the  composition  of  starch;  consequently  the  non-nitrogenous 
substances,  with  the  exception  of  fat,  may  be  considered  as  carbohydrates.  A 
portion  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  is  not  digested.  An  important  point  to  be 
noticed  is  that  the  amount  of  crude  fibre  digested  is  nearly  equal  to  the  amount 
of  nitrogen-free  extract  that  is  not  assimilated.  This  principle  must  not  be 
accepted  to  the  letter;  but  it  enables  one  to  form  an  excellent  idea  of  the 
digestibility  of  a  fodder.  Experiments  appear  to  show  that  the  undigested 
nitrogen-free  extract  has  more  carbon  in  its  composition  than  carbohydrates, 
and  is  said  to  have  the  same  as  lignin. 

Non-nitrogenous.  The  most  important  of  the  non-nitrogenous 
nutrients  of  which  fodders  consist  are  the  carbohydrates,  fat  and  cellulose. 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL   CONSIDERATIONS.          367 

!N"on-sugar.  Any  feeding  substance  containing  sugar  has  combined 
with  it  other  constituents  which  are,  in  general,  termed  non-sugar. 

Nutritive  ratio.  This  expression  is  very  practical.  In  its  proper 
sense  it  is  intended  to  convey  the  ratio  between  digestible  protein  in  any  feed- 
ing stuff  and  the  amount  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  ether  extract.  This 
ether  extract  is  multiplied  by  2.4.  (In  the  United  States  there  is  great  need 
of  some  uniformity  in  the  use  of  this  factor,  as  in  some  cases  it  is  2.2  to  2.25 
and  in  others  as  high  as  2.5;  the  latter  is  an  excess  and  the  former  too  small. ) 
If  we  consider  red  clover  hay,  for  example,  there  will  be,  for  one  hundred 
pounds  of  this  fodder,  6.8  Ibs.  protein  digestible,  35.8  Ibs.  carbohydrates  and 
J.7  Ib.  of  ether  extract.  The  ratio  is  calculated  as  follows: 

1.7  X  2.4  =  4.08.     The  total  carbohydrates  then  are:  35.8  -f-  4.C8  =  39.88. 

qq  QC 

Nutritive  ratio  =         °  —  5.8  or  1:5.8. 
6.8 

Oil  meal.  In  most  countries  of  Continental  Europe  the  various  after- 
products  from  oil  mills  are  known  as  oil  cakes.  In  the  United  States  the  pro- 
duct is  ground  to  a  meal,  hence  the  name  oil  meal.  It  offers  great  help  for 
feeding  in  general;  but  the  quantity  used  should  be  restricted. 

Oil  process  linseed  meal.  The  "oil  cake,"  as  it  was  once  called, 
has  now  practically  become  almost  obsolete.  The  cakes  containing  15  per 
cent,  oil  were  of  comparatively  small  dimension  and  easy  to  handle.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  increased  pressure  to  which  the  residuum  was  submitted,  the 
oil  percentage  diminished,  and  now  the  name  has  been  changed  to  "old  oil- 
seed process."  The  original  oil  cake  in  many  countries  continues  to  hold  its 
own.  In  the  United  States  it  renders  considerable  service  in  compounding 
rations  for  horses.  Not  more  than  two  pounds  per  diem  should  be  fed.  It 
offers  in  special  cases  an  advantage  as  a  laxative.  The  old  process  product 
contains  a  protein  percentage  that  may  vary  from  26  to  38.5  per  cent.,  and  an 
average  of  only  8  per  cent.  fat. 

Omasom.     This  is  the  third  stomach  of  ruminants. 

Organic  matter.  When  feeds  are  burned  the  organic  matter  dis- 
appears. 

Osmotic  action.    That  which  pertains  to  osmosis. 

Osmose.  "NVhen  crystalline  substances  are  in  solution,  and  are  placed  in 
porous  receptacles,  they  pass  through,  leaving  the  particles  that  are  non- 
crystallizable,  or  colloids. 

Oxalic  acid.  This  acid  is  found  in  the  juice  of  numerous  plants  as 
potassium  or  calcic  salt;  it  is  mainly  the  outcome  of  the  oxidation  of  various 
substances.  It  may  be  prepared  by  the  simple  action  of  nitric  acid  upon  sugar. 

Paunch..  The  largest  division  of  the  stomach  of  ruminants  is  called  the 
paunch  or  first  stomach. 


368      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

Pea  meal  comes  under  the  head  of  the  legumes.  Its  use  is  not  very  gen- 
eral. It  may  contain  20  per  cent,  protein  and  an  average  of  15  per  cent.  fat. 
Combined  with  roots,  it  is  frequently  used  in  feeding,  and  then  offers  special 
advantages.  It  excels  all  split  peas. 

Pectic  substances.  The  composition  of  these  products  is  very  var- 
iable. They  are  found  in  beets  and  other  roots  in  the  form  of  pectose.  When 
boiled  this  becomes  pectin,  and  if  the  heating  continues,  there  is  formed 
pectic  acid,  etc. ,  which  acid  is  insoluble  in  boiling  water;  when  the  boiling  is 
continued,  there  is  formed  a  metapectic  acid.  As  these  simple  and  complex 
bodies  are  digestible,  they  play  important  roles  in  animal  feeding.  Just  what 
relation  exists  between  them  and  carbohydrates  remains  to  be  demonstrated; 
they  differ  from  carbohydrates  in  their  percentage  of  oxygen. 

Pentosanes  are  found  in  considerable  quantities  in  plants.  The  pen- 
toses,  the  outcome  of  pentosanes,  are  hydrocarbons. 

Peptones.  Constituents  found  in  sugar  beets  as  well  as  in  other  roots, 
etc.,  and  are  also  formed  from  protein  during  the  function  of  digestion.  It 
remains  to  be  demonstrated  just  what  their  role  is,  and,  consequently,  what 
advantage  there  is  in  having  them  in  fodder. 

Phosphates.  Phosphoric  acid  combines  with  alkalies  to  form  phosphates. 

Phosphoric  acid.  In  many  fodders  phosphoric  acid  is  very  deficient, 
and  should  be  added  in  one  form  or  another.  The  percentage  of  this  chemical 
in  plants  varies  very  considerably.  In  beets  and  residuum  cossettes,  this  acid 
may  frequently  be  found  in  sufficient  quantity  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  bony 
tissues. 

Plant  foods.  Plants,  during  their  growth,  take  up  from  the  soil  cer- 
tain elements,  such  as  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  etc.,  which  are  the 
foods  upon  which  their  development  largely  depends. 

Protein.  Represents  a  compound  consisting  mainly  of  nitrogen.  Just 
how  it  is  formed  in  plants  is  explained  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  and  sulphur 
upon  the  protoplasms  of  the  cells  of  plants.  After  a  certain  period,  the 
protein  appears  to  leave  a  certain  portion  of  the  cellular  tissue  and  centers 
itself  in  the  seed  and  mainly  in  the  germ.  The  protein  compounds  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups,  albuminoids  and  amides;  they  constitute  the  most 
important  elements  in  feeding,  and  therefore  should  be  the  most  expensive. 
The  transformation  that  these  protein  constituents  undergo  during  assimilation 
consists  in  the  formation  of  muscles,  bones,  skin,  etc.,  which  action  may  be 
for  the  purpose  of  replacing  waste,  or  to  help  build  up  and  increase  tissue. 
The  mode  of  determining  the  percentage  of  protein  in  any  feeding  stuff",  is  too 
complicated  for  the  present  writing.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  after  the  nitrogen 
has  been  estimated,  the  amount  is  multiplied  by  6.25,  and  this,  for  all  practi- 
cal purposes,  represents  the  protein.  The  amount  of  protein  in  feeds  varies 
considerably;  100  Ibs.  of  clover  hay  contain  12  Ibs.  protein,  while  sunflower- 
seed  cake  contains  per  100  pounds  nearly  83  Ibs.  protein.  Between  these  two 
there  is  a  long  series  of  fodders.  Upon  general  principles,  it  may  be  admitted 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.         369 

that  nitrogenous  substances  during  the  process  of  assimilation  in  the  body  are 
transformed  into  soluble  peptones,  which  find  their  way  into  the  blood.  The 
protein  energy  of  one  gram  of  (his  substance  is  4.1  calories  or  6.3  foot  tons. 
Feeding  experiments  with  protein  appear  to  show  that  when  used  alone  it 
tends  to  increase  the  consumption  of  the  protein  of  the  body,  and  the  excess 
does  not  appear  to  help  the  formation  of  flesh.  This  question  is  still  open  to 
discussion.  Some  well  conducted  experiments  appear  to  show  that  when  the 
ration  used  is  a  wide  nutritive  one,  the  results  obtained  are  more  satisfactory; 
hence  the  best  mode  appears  to  be  to  combine  the  protein  required  with  con- 
siderable carbohydrates.  Various  substances  have  important  influences  on 
protein  consumption.  It  is  now  admitted  that  amides  contained  in  plants  can 
justly  claim  to  be  nutrients,  and  are  oxidized  just  as  other  feeds  are;  for  ex- 
ample, asparugin  when  fed  in  certain  quantities  will  result  in  a  gain  of  protein 
even  when  forming  part  of  a  ration  poor  in  protein.  Under  these  circum- 
stances it  becomes  a  helper  in  the  formation  of  tissue.  Later  experiments  show 
that  amides  may  also  take  the  place,  within  reasonable  limits,  of  albuminoids. 

"Without  doubt  sodic  chlorid  or  salt  has  an  important  influence  on  protein 
consumption;  the  general  circulation  of  the  blood  being  stimulated  through 
this  saline  action,  there  necessarily  follow  greater  wear  and  tear,  and  conse- 
quently a  demand  upon  the  existing  protein.  A  fact  not  to  be  forgotten  is  that 
salt  increases  the  working  of  the  kidneys,  and  acts  in  a  measure  as  a  diuretic. 
The  flow  of  urine  being  greater,  there  follows  a  certain  thirst,  and  if  this  can- 
not be  satisfied,  the  requisite  water  will  be  drawn  from  the  body,  under  which 
circumstances  there  is  a  drain  on  the  tissues;  hence  the  desirability  in  such 
cases  of  considerable  water  for  drinking  purposes. 

Many  experiments  tend  to  show  that  the  glycogen  in  the  liver  derives  its 
source  mainly  from  protein,  that  it  is  thus  stored  up  and  used  when  required. 
There  are  numerous  other  theories  of  the  same  kind. 

Abstinence  from  food  demands  that  the  body  meat  (muscle),  shall  be  called 
upon,  and  under  these  circumstances  there  follows  a  considerable  daily  decrease 
of  protein.  Voit's  experiments  show  that  protein  exists  in  two  forms  in  the 
body,  viz.,  the  organized  protein  and  the  movable  protein,  but  such  theories 
have  since  been  refuted.  The  bulk  of  existing  experiments  appears  to  show 
that  they  are  truly  scientific  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word.  The  organized 
protein  undergoes  a  change  very  slowly,  while  the  movable  protein  is  rapidly 
decomposed  into  its  albuminoids,  and  must  be  replaced  by  the  protein  contained 
in  the  fodder.  In  feeding  fodders  to  sheep,  experience  seems  to  show  that 
there  is  every  advantage  in  using  considerable  protein  to  obtain  the  best  fatten- 
ing; it  tends  to  increase  the  amount  of  nutrients  digested.  Protein  also  plays 
a  most  important  role  in  milk  production,  in  helping  the  growth  of  the  cells 
in  the  milk  glands,  as  they  consist  mainly  of  protein.  The  importance  of  this 
element  in  the  food  is  very  readily  understood;  furthermore,  the  greatest  yield 
in  milk  in  most  cases  is  in  direct  ratio  with  the  supply  of  protein.  This  sub- 
stance tends  to  increase  the  percentage  of  solid  matter  in  milk.  In  certain 
special  cases,  if  the  food  is  especially  palatable  to  a  cow,  the  flow  of  milk  may 
increase  without  additional  protein,  but  there  is  then  danger  of  the  animal 


370      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

drawing  upon  its  reserve  force,  which  always  means  a  considerable  reduction 
in  weight,  and  a  reaction  is  then  to  be  dreaded. 

Potassic  salts.  Fodders  in  general  contain  these  salts  in  sufficient 
quantities;  hence  they  need  not  be  added  to  the  ration. 

Pressed  COSSettes.  After  the  beet  slices  have  been  sufficiently  ex- 
hausted of  their  sugar  in  the  diffusion  battery,  they  are  emptied  from  the 
bottom  of  the  diffusors,  and  as  they  contain  an  excess  of  water,  which  would 
render  their  handling  most  difficult,  this  is  very  considerably  eliminated  by 
running  the  residuum  through  special  presses,  known  as  cossette  presses. 

Proteids.  This  is  a  general  term  given  to  the  albumin  and  albuminoids 
entering  the  composition  of  feeds  or  the  organism.  There  are  many  sub- 
divisions of  these  substances,  such  as  egg  albumin,  serum  albumin,  etc. 

Pulps  is  another  name  for  diffusion  residuum  cossettes.  The  term  is  very 
generally  used,  and  may  be  accepted.  However,  a  pulp  obtained  from  beets 
exists  only  in  beet  distilleries,  where,  after  fermentation,  the  final  residuum  is 
an  actual  pulp.  When  hydraulic  pressing  was  in  vogue,  the  beet  residuum 
was  a  pulp  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  but  now  the  final  product,  after  leav- 
ing the  presses,  has  a  certain  tenacity,  and  is  not  soft  and  pulp-like. 

Radiation.     The  emission  of  rays  of  light  or  heat;  to  shine. 

Ration.  The  daily  allowance  of  food  for  an  animal  must  be  made  up  of 
nitrogenous,  non-nitrogenous  and  mineral  substances.  While  most  fodders, 
either  dry  or  green,  contain  these  in  varied  proportions,  they  seldom,  when 
considered  alone,  constitute  what  might  be  termed  a  complete  food,  meeting 
the  daily  requisites.  In  order  to  maintain  an  animal  in  a  good  healthy  con- 
dition, several  fodders  must  always  be  combined  to  make  up  the  ration. 
Practical  experience  shows  what  these  combinations  should  be. 

Reeticulum.     This  is  the  second  stomach  of  ruminants. 

Rennet  or  Al>omasom.  This  is  the  fourth  stomach  of  ruminants,  in 
which  take  place  the  processes  relating  to  digestion. 

Residuum.  After  an  operation  having  in  view  the  extraction  of  one 
substance  from  another,  there  remains  a  residuum.  In  the  extraction  of  sugar 
from  beet  slices,  there  remain  the  cossettes,  which  are  known  as  residuum 
cossettes.  There  are  various  other  residuums  left  in  beet  sugar  factories,  such 
as  filter  press  residuums,  also  termed  filter  press  scums,  and  there  is  also  the 
water  residuum  from  various  appliances. 

Roughage  is  the  coarse  portions  of  a  ration,  such  as  hay,  corn,  fodder, 
silage,  straw,  etc. 

Ruminants.  The  animals  that  chew  a  cud  are  known  as  ruminants. 
The  stomachs  of  the  leading  members  of  the  group  have  four  separate  divisions. 

Saliva  is  a  secretion  from  the  glands  of  the  mouth.  It  not  only  moistens 
foods,  but  in  an  important  measure  helps  in  the  subsequent  digestion. 

Saccharose  is  another  name  for  cane  sugar. 


DEFINITIONS    AND    TECHNICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.         371 

Scums.  During  the  filtration  of  carbonated  beet  juices  there  remain, 
upon  the  filtering  cloths  deposits  called  scums,  which  consist  not  only  of  car- 
bonate of  lime,  but  also  of  the  coagulated  albuminoids  that  rise  to  the  surface 
of  saccharine  juices  during  their  heating  and  carbonation. 

Serum  is  a  fluid,  yellow  in  color,  which  separates  from  blood  after  the 
fibrin  has  coagulated. 

Silos.  The  pit  or  combination  by  means  of  which  feeds  are  kept  during 
the  winter  months.  They  may  be  above  or  beneath  the  surface.  Beets  and 
residuum  cossettes,  after  being  arranged  in  piles,  are  covered  with  earth  and 
straw. 

Sodie  elilorid  is  another  name  for  common  table  salt;  it  is  also  called 
chlorid  of  sodium. 

Sour  cossettes  are  those  cossettes  that  have  been  siloed  and  have 
undergone  a  partial  fermentation.  Their  flavor  is  very  much  more  acceptable 
to  live  stock  than  is  either  the  fresh  or  dried  residuum. 

Stalks  of  beet  seed.  During  the  second  year  of  the  beefs  develop- 
ment, it  throws  up  stalks  upon  which  the  seeds  are  formed;  these  stalks  and 
old  seed  are  frequently  used  for  feeding  purposes. 

Starch.  This  product  is  found  in  considerable  quantities  in  all  vege- 
tables. One  of  its  essential  properties  is  that  when  brought  in  contact  with 
iodin,  it  becomes  blue.  It  may  be  changed  to  dextrin  by  boiling  with  acids, 
and  when  placed  in  the  mouth  or  in  the  stomach,  it  is  changed  into  sugar.  It 
plays  a  very  important  role  in  the  non-nitrogenous  substances,  and  is  very 
readily  digested.  Its  general  composition  is  nearly  that  of  cellulose.  Starch 
swells  in  boiling  water.  The  product  exists  in  plants  in  the  most  varied  form. 
AYhen  heated  it  may  be  changed  to  dextrin. 

Stimulants.  In  most  cases  stimulants  are  of  the  first  importance  in 
cattle  feeding.  When  mentioning  stimulants,  we  refer  to  those  substances 
that  have  for  their  object  the  increase  of  appetite.  The  importance  of  salt 
was  for  many  years  doubted,  but  we  believe  that  it  is  now  accepted  by  most 
experts.  It  stimulates  the  digestive  glands  to  secrete  actively  and  thereby 
renders  excellent  service.  Pleasant  and  comfortable  surroundings  has  in  all 
cases  a  stimulating  effect  not  to  be  overlooked,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of 
kind  treatment.  A  farmer  who  brutalizes  his  animals  is  in  the  long  run  the 
loser;  the  irritating  effect  produced  by  his  presence  has  anything  but  a  stimu- 
lating effect  upon  the  cattle  under  his  care.  It  frequently  happens  that  the 
entire  nervous  system  is  affected  by  the  regular  feeding  of  stimulants  that  the 
animal  relishes  and  looks  towards  eating  at  regular  hours.  IMany  products 
have  been  recommended  and  used,  but  most  of  them  are  too  expensive  to  have 
any  practical  value. 

Sucrose.  Cane  sugar  is  frequently  called  sucrose;  it  is  made, up  of  12 
parts  carbon,  22  parts  hydrogen,  and  11  parts  oxygen,  and  has  for  its  formula 
C,.,H.,,On;  it  differs  from  glucose  by  only  one  equivalent  of  water,  water  being 
expressed  by  H2O;  that  of  glucose  then  is  Ci2H24O12.  If  on  the  other  hand, 


372      FEEDING  WITH  SUGAR  BEETS,  SUGAR,  ETC. 

H2O  is  removed  from  cane  sugar,  we  have  starch.  These  all  come  under  the 
one  general  head  of  carbohydrates. 

Sugars.  Fodders  contain  sugar  in  various  forms.  Whether  from  the 
sugar  cane  or  the  sugar  beet,  it  comes  under  the  caption  of  cane  sugar.  In 
certain  cases  when  milk  is  used,  one  has  milk  sugar,  and  grape  and  fruit  sugars 
are  also  to  be  considered  in  certain  special  feeding  experiments.  Whatever 
be  the  kind  or  variety  of  sugar,  it  always,  upon  general  principles,  has  an  im- 
portant resemblance  to  cane  sugar.  Sugars  are  soluble  in  water,  hence  they 
possess  great  facilities  for  being  digested,  and  consequently  assimilated. 

Sugar  in  most  plants  diminishes  as  they  approach  maturity,  while  during  the 
first  year,  at  least  for  sugar  beets,  the  reverse  is  the  case,  when  the  roots  have 
not  been  properly  siloed.  The  sugar  percentage  in  beets  depends  upon  their 
variety,  method  of  cultivation,  soil  and  fertilizer — when  nitric  fertilizers  are 
used  in  excess,  the  sugar  percentage  is  low.  Beets  that  grow  above  ground 
contain  less  sugar  than  such  as  grow  well  beneath  the  surface;  among  them  may 
be  mentioned  mangels,  etc.,  frequently  cultivated  for  stock  feed.  Upon  gen- 
eral principles  it  may  be  admitted  that  fodders  containing  only  a  small  per- 
centage of  sugar  are  eaten  with  avidity.  It  may  be  admitted  that  sugar  tends 
to  increase  the  flow  of  milk,  gives  strength  to  the  body,  and  also  helps  to  in- 
crease the  formation  of  fat.  During  digestion  all  sugars  are  transformed  into 
glucose. 

Wheat  bran.  This  residuum  contains  very  little  flour;  it  renders  con- 
siderable service  for  mixing  with  pulp  fodders,  and  is  very  extensively  used 
for  dairying  purposes.  It  contains  about  15.5  per  cent,  nitrogen. 

Wheat  middlings  are  supposed  to  be  the  coverings  of  wheat  following 
the  hulls,  and  include  colored  flours;  in  reality  there  is  always  considerable 
flour  combined.  This  is  not  an  advantage  in  cattle  feeding,  for  various  reasons. 

Wheat  residuums  are  numerous:  wheat  feed,  ship  stuff,  flour  feed, 
wheat  shorts.  They  are  frequently  combinations  of  several  feeding  stuffs,  such 
as  oats,  corn,  etc.  Their  composition  is  most  variable;  it  is  better  to  have 
them  analyzed  before  using. 

Wide  ratio  means  that  the  ratio  existing  between  the  protein  and  the 
carbohydrates  and  ether  extract  combined  is  excessive.  For  oat  straw  it  is 
1:33,  which  may  be  considered  as  an  excellent  example  of  a  wide  ratio. 


INDEX. 


A  BOMASON  or  rennet,  370 
A     Acidity.  331 
Acidulated  beet  leaves,  103.  104 
Ahrens,  ration  proposed  by,  for  horned 

cattle,  150 

Air.  amount  of,  required,  31 
Albumin,  331 

effect  of.  on  milk,  29 

production    of    muscular    energy 

by.  54 

Albuminoids.  9,  331 
consumption  of,  52 
determination  of  the  nitrogen  of 

the.  298,  299 
Alcohol,  utilization  of  molasses  for  the 

manufacture  of,  296 
Alfalfa,  digestible   nutrients   of,  319, 

322 

Alimentary  canal,  331 
Alkali,  331 
Alkaline.  331 
Alkaloids.  331 
Allen,  Mr.,  on  beet  pulp  feeding,  222 


remarks  of.  on  silos.  223 
Alvarado,  system  of  surface  storing  of 

beet  cowettes  at.  167,  168 
American   cows,  requirements  of,   as 

compared  with  European.  40,  41 
Ames,  Xeb.,  experience  of,  222-226 
Amides,   content   of.   in   soured   beet 

-•ttes,  162 

nutritive  value  of,  162 
varied    opinions    respecting    the 

value  of.  236.  237 
Amids.  331,  332 
Andouard  and  Vezaunay.  experiments 

of,  148 

Anhydrous,  definition  of,  332 
Animal  fattening,  problem  of,  87,  88 
ration,  pulp  combination  in  the. 

7,  8 
Animal's   body,    constituents   of   the, 

336-340 
Animals,   carbonic    acid    thrown   out 

by,  52 
effect  of  sugar  on,  309 

(373) 


Animals,    form,  table  for  computing 

rations  for,  319-330 
feeding  of,  with  blood-molasses, 

285 

increase  in  weight  of,  by  feeding 

dried  cossettes  and  molasses,  260 

influence  of  molasses  on  the  organ- 

ism of,  248 

stall-fed,  rations  for.  6,  7 
to  be  fattened,  bleeding  of,  11 
varying  molasses  rations  for,  253 
working,  ration  for,  6 

theoretical   considerations  of 

feeding,  52  57 
Apple  pomace,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

329,  330 
Armsbv,  Prof.,  on  sugar  beet  feeding, 

80,  81 
Ash.  332 

digestibility  of,  353 
estimation  of,  299 
Asparagin,  332 
Assimilation,  332 


Attigny  sugar  factory,  France,  molas- 
ses forage  made  at  'the,  290-292 

Austro-Hungary,  increasing  popular- 
ity of  molasses  feeding  in,  233,  234 

BACTERIA,  35 
definition  of.  332 

Barley  and  peas,  digestible  nutrients 
"  of,  319 

digestible  nutrients  of.  323,  324 
Beet  cossettes  and  the  wool,  47 

filling  silos  with,  159,  160 
in  cattle  feeding,  142 
leaf  drying,  104,  105 

loss  of  oxalic  acid  in,  108 
feeding,  110,  111 

conclusions     respecting, 

114,  125 
early,  and  mistakes  made 

in.  96 

objections  to,  111,  112 
fodder,  soft,  102 
keeping.  97,  98 


374 


INDEX. 


Beet  leaf  keeping,  modes  of,  107 
stripping,  95,  96 
washing,  102,  103 

losses  in,  102,  103 
leaves   and    other    substances   in 

silo,  100,  101 

and  tops,  average  crop  of,  96 
harvesting  the  crop  of, 

96.  97 

money  value  of,  116,117 
acidulated,  103.  104 
Buttner  and  Meyer  dryer  for. 

105,  107 

compressing  of,  in  siloes,  98 
Crumner  dryer  for,  105 
decomposition  of  sugar  in, 108 
desiccation  of,  110 
faulty  siloing  of,  100 
Grouven's     experiments     in 

siloing.  100 
saline  elements  in,  115 
siloed,  analysis  of,  99 

composition  of,  98 
siloing  of.  in  Germany,  101 
transformation    of,    in    silos, 

and  losses,  99,  100 
Wusterhagen  dryer  for,  107- 

109 
mangel,   digestible    nutrients   of, 

320 
molasses,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

329 

products,   comparative    nutritive 
values  of  rations  varied  by 
the  addition  of,  203 
different,   comparative  anal- 
yses of  milk,  when  fed,  203 
pulp  disease,  144,  145 

feeding   of.    with   a   view  of 
producing      milk       and 
butter.  147, 148 
synopsis  of  experiments  in, 

147,  148 
mixing    common    salt   with, 

147 

utilization,    impulse    by.    to 

sheep  raising  in  the  U.S.  .45 

value  of.  on  dairy  farms,  147 

pulps,    combination    of    common 

salt  with,  144,  145 
dangers  of  feeding,  143,  144 
how  to  feed.  143 
water  in,  149,  156 
relation  of,  to  leaf  composition, 

115,  116 

residuum,  analysis  of,  before  and 
after  preparing,  124 


Beet  residuum,  excess  of  water  in,  121 

feeding     and     fattening     of 

steers    with,    in    Western 

States,  14 

fresh  and  siloed,  feeding  of, 

118-172 

manner  of  using,  119 
money  advantages  of,  19 
pulp,  objections  to  the  use  of, 

118,119 

sugar  left  in,  121 
seed,  stalks  of,  371 

stalks  and  seed,  feeding  with, 

117 
slices,  influence  of  lime  upon  the 

cellular  testure  of,  175 
special  advantage  offered  by  the,  7 
-steaming  pits,  Leduc's,  66-68 
sugar,  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages of,  110 
digestible  nutrients  of,  320, 

321 

question  of  the  utilization  of 
the  over-production  of,  312, 
313 

tops,  value  of;  220,  221 
Beets  and  mangels  compared,  70-74 

plant  food  taken  up  by,  73 
potatoes. comparison  between, 

88-90 

pulp  compared.  69,  70 
silage,  comparison  as  to  the 

cost  of  feeding  with,  87 
Tankard,     comparative     in- 
crease   in    weight    of 
sheep  fed  with,  72 
compared,  71 
cost  of,  per  acre,  87 
feeding  of,  to  cattle,  64-117 

cows,  and  sheep,  ex- 
periments in,  in 
the  United  States, 
79-93 

field,  and  silage  relative  values  of, 

in  the  production  of  milk,  83-88 

large  and  small,  in  cattle  feeding, 

78.  79 
mangels  and  silage,  comparative 

feeding  value  of,  for  cows,  92 
preparation  of,  before  feeding,  65 
ration  with  and  without,  average 
daily  yield   of  milk   produced 
by.  86' 

results  obtained  by  feeding  a  short- 
horn cow  and  a  Holstein  heifer 
on,  89 
Bergreen  press,  131-134 


INDEX. 


375 


Berthonval.  France,  experiments  made 

at.  249.  250 
Betain,  332 

Blood,    amount   of  glucose   that   dis- 
appears in  the,  302 
composition  of,  280 
destruction  of  sugar  in  the,  301, 

302 
elimination  of  the  fibrin  of  the, 

283,  284 
molasses  combinations,  280 

analyses  of.  283.284 
method    of    prepar-  j 

ing.  282 

possibilities  of,  281 
feeding    animals   in   general 

with.  285 
cows  with,  284 
horses  with.  284,  285 
pigs  with,  284.  285 
fodder,  difficulties  in  keeping. 

286,  287 
preparation    of,    on    the 

farm,  286 

general  rations  of,  286 
varied  absorbents  for,  282,  283 
Bolus,  333 

Bran  and  molasses  combination,  270 
superiority  of  peat  and 

molasses  to.  262 
comparison  of.  with  peat,  270 
Brewers'  grains,  333 

and  molasses.  277,  278 
digestible  nutrients  of.  327 
Brunehaut.  analysis  of  fresh  and  dried 

cossettes  by.  188 
Buckwheat  bran,  digestible  nutrients 

of.  326 

digestible  nutrients  of,  324 
middlings,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

326 
Bulls  and  heifers,  experimental  sugar 

rations  for.  313,  314 
ration  for.  151 

Butter  and  milk,  feeding  with  the  view 
of  producing,  147,  148  j 
influence  of  feeds  upon,  j 

26-28 
characteristic    odors    of,   due    to 

siloed  pulp  feeding,  158 
flavor  of,  26.  27 
production,  feeding  with  the  view 

to.  34 

Buttermilk,  digestible  nutrients  of.  330 
Buttner  and  Meyer  dryer,  181-187 

for  beet  leaves, 
105-107 


By-products,   digestible  nutrients  of, 
"326-328 


ACiE,  digestible  nutrients  of, 
328,  329 
Calcic  carbonate.  333 

phosphate.  333 
Calculation  of  rations  for  milch  cows. 

38-45 
California  dairy  cows,  compositions  of 

rations  fed  to,  42 
experiment  station,  conclusions  of 

the,  219-221 
importance  of  the  question  of  feed- 

ing cossettes  to  cattle  in,  215 
Calf  feeding.  25.  26 

most  natural  conditions  for  the,  15 
Calorie,  definition  of,  333 
Calves,  feeding  sugar  to,  310,  311 

Soxhlet's  experiments  upon,  15 
Calving  cow,  needs  of  the,  25 
Carbohydrates,  9,  333 

digestibility  of,  346-348 
heat  obtained  from  the,  53 
influence  of,  on  the  formation  of 

fat.  10  12 
Carbon,  333 
Carbonatation.  333 
Carbonate  of  lime,  333 
Carbonates,  definition  of,  333 
Carbonic  acid.  333 

amount  of,  thrown  out  by 

animals,  52 

Carbonize,  definition  of,  333 
Carnivorous,  definition  of.  333 
Carrot,  digestible  nutrients  of,  321 
Casein.  29,  333 
Cattle  and  young  steers,  feeding  and 

fattening,  9-21 
digestion  of,  353-356 
experiments  in  feeding,  with  dif- 

fusion pulp,  152 
fattening,     successful,     requisites 

for.  17,  18 
feed,  green  corn  fodder  vs.  sugar 

beets  for,  76-78 
feeding,  beet  cossettes  in,  142 
beets  to,  64-117 
cossettes,    fresh    and    dried, 
mixed  with    molasses   for, 
258,  259 

former  modes  of,  1,  2 
general  considerations  on,  1-8 
in  hot  climates,  argument  ad- 

vanced relative  to,  306 
large  and  small  beets  in,  78, 
79 


376 


INDEX. 


Cattle  feeding,  of  sugar  to,  in  the  early 
part  of  last  century,  303-309 
of,  with  beet  leaves,  116 

sugar  beets  and  resi- 
duum cossettes,  early 
prejudice  in  the 
United  States  against, 
210-231 

peat-molasses  to.  267 
present  modes  of,  2 
fodder,  sugar  beets  more  profitable 

than  clover  hay  for,  79 
horned,  ration  for,  150 
modes  of  feeding  molasses  to,  254 
practical  suggestions  in  early  dis- 
cussions   on    feeding   of,    with 
sugar,  306-309 
water  required  for,  35,  36 
Cellular  tissue,  333 
Cellulose,  333,  334 

determination  of,  299 
role  of,  4 

Centigrade  degrees,  334 
Cereal  wastes.  334 
Chauveau's  theory  of  the  destruction 

of  sugar  in  the  blood,  301,  302 
Chino,  early  experiments  at,  215-217 
Chlorids,  334 
Chlorophyl,  334 
Chyle,  334 
Clover  and  mixed   grasses,  digestible 

nutrients  of,  321 
digestibility  of  crude  cellulose  in, 

351 
hay,  sugar  beets  more  profitable 

for  cattle  feeding  than,  79 
red,  digestible  nutrients  of,  319 
silage  and  corn  silage  vs.   sugar 

beets,  82,  83 
Clovers,  334 

Coagulate,  definition  of,  334 
Cob  meal,  advantages  of,  26 
'Coefficient  of  digestibility  and  nutri- 
tive relations,  334- 
336 

of  protein,  346 
Coefficients  of  digestibility  for  fodder 

components,  342 
Colorado,  experiments  in,  230 
Coloring  and  volatile  substances,  336 
Commercial  value  of  fodders.  61-63 
Comparative  experiments,  69-79 
Concentrates,  336 

combination  of,  with  roughage,  22 
Cone  cosette  press.  129-131 

presses,  daily  delivery  of.  131 
Cooking  or  steaming  of  fodders,  65-68 


I  Co-operative  methods,  38 
Corn  and  cob  meal.  340 

digestible  nutrients  of, 

324.  325 

cost  of  siloing  one  acre  of,  87 
digestible  nutrients  of,  323 
fodder,  digestible  nutrients  of,  322 
germs  and   molasses,  comparison 

of,  with  corn  feeding,  2(39 
meal,  advantages  of,  26 
silage  and  clover  silage  vs.  sugar 

beets,  82,  83 
and   roots    for    milch    cows, 

comparison  of,  81,  82 
digestible  nutrients  of,  320 
stover,  digestible  nutrients  of,  322 
Cornell    University,    experiments    at 

the  92,  93 

Corpuscles,  definition  of,  340 
Cossette  dryer,  formula  for  calculating 

the  efficiency  of  a,  187 
price  for  a,  173 
drying    in    Michigan,   apparatus 

for,  228,  229 

principal  promoters  of,  174 
feeding,  conclusions  as  to  dangers 

of,  145-147 
economy  of,  93 
excessive,  149 
successful,  33 

or  pulp  contracts,  138,  139 
presses,  122 

care  needed  during,  136 
pressing,    facilitation   of,   by 

heat,  136 
modes  for  facilitating,  136- 

138 
utilization  on  a  co-operative  basis, 

38 
Cossettes,  acid  reaction  of,  161 

addition    of   lime   or   phosphoric 

acid  to,  141,  142 
as  food  for  game,  156 

man,  155,  156 
beneficial  effects  of,  upon  horses, 

208,  209 

Bergreen  press  for,  131-134 
changes  in,  when  exposed  to  the 

air,  141 

chemical  changes  in.  during  pro- 
longed siloing,  164 
cone  press  for.  129-131 
continued  feeding  with,  148 
conveyance  of,  to  farm,  140 
decomposed  or  mildewed,  145 
definition  of,  11CJ 
diffusion,  composition  of,  120, 121 


INDEX. 


377 


Cossettes,  digestibility  of,  155. 199, 200 
nitrogenous      s  u  b  - 

stances  of,  165 
dried,  actual  economy  of,  209 

advantages  of,  in  feeding,  194 

handling,  197 

and  hay ,  comparative  analysis 

of,  192 

molasses,  analyses  of 
combinations  of, 
260 

mixture  of,  259,260 

superiority    of,    to 

pressed     cossettes 

and  molasses.  260 

average  composition  of,  191 

profit  from  the  use  of, 

208 
change   in,  during   keeping, 

198,199 

conservation  of,  198 
mineral  substances   in,    197, 

198 
more    hygienic    than    the 

siloed,  196,  197 
objections  to  using,  173,  174 
precautions  in  feeding,  200- 

202 

quantity  of,  to  be  fed,  202 
residuum,  173-209 
dripping  and  straining  of,  121, 122 
drying  of,  by  waste  gases,  176 
early  appreciation  of  the  value  of, 

118 
chemical  changes  in,  during 

siloing,  163 

excessive  pressure  of,  122 
experiments  in  feeding  •different 

kinds  of,  202-208 
feeding  scrub  cattle  with ,  8 

value  of,  141 

filling  silos  with,  159,  160 
fresh  and  dried,  analysis  of,  188 
mixed  with  molasses 
for  cattle  feeding, 
258.  259 
dried    and    siloed,    relative 

digestibility  of,  199 
or  dried,  composition  of  milk 

from  cows  fed  on,  202 
frozen,  feeding  of.  150 
in  cattle  feeding,  142 
Klusemann  press  for.  124-127 
lactic  fermentation  of.  161,  162 
Lallouette  press  for,  134-136 
liming  of,  before  drying,  175 
limit  of  pressing  of,  174,  175 


Cossettes,  losses  in,  during  pressing, 

123,124 
mixing  of  lime  with,  138 

with  an  antiseptic.  167 
lime     or     alkaline 

salts,  137 
other  fodders,  152, 

153 

straw,  166 
pressed,  370 
Selwig  and  Lange  press  for,  127- 

siloed  and  dried,  comparison  be- 
tween, 192-194 
siloing  of,  156-172 
silos  for  reducing,  156-159 
sour,  371 

diseases  due  to,  145 
soured,  increase  in  milk  produc- 
tion by.  154 

steam  drying  of,  189-191 
surface  soiling  of,  167-171 
temperature  of,  in  being  dried,  184 
transformation  of,  during  siloing, 

160-167 
the  nitrogenous 
substances  of, 
162 
utilization  of  lost  heat  for  drving, 

177, 178 

value  of,  139,  140 
what  feeding  of,  means   in  Ger- 
many, 156 
Cotton  seed  meal,  340 

advantages  of,  26 
digestible    nutrients    of, 

328 

Cow,  breed  and  kind  of,  32 
•calving,  needs  of  the,  25 
dairying  based   on   maternity  of 

the,  23 

ease  and  comfort  for  the,  32 
secondary  importance  of  the,  1 
yield  of  milk  from  a,  23 
Cows,  American,  requirements  of.  as 
compared  with  European,  40, 41 
'and  sheep,  experiments  in  feed- 
ing beets  to,  in  the  United 
States,  79-93 
oxen,  working.  56,  57 
comparative     feeding    value     of 
silage,  beets  and  mangels  for,  92 
constant  attention  to,  32 
experimental  ration  fed  to,  205, 20(5 
experiments  in  feeding  of,  with 

beet  leaves,  115 
upon,  69.  70 


378 


INDEX. 


Cows,  feeding  of,  33-38 

with  blood-molasses,  284 

importance  of  regular  feeding  of,  6 

influence  of  water  in   ration  on 
milk  and  weight  of,  196 

kind  treatment  of,  32,  33 

nutritive  ratio  for,  30 

pregnant,,  miscarriage  of,  247 

rations  for,  209 

trial  of,  32 
Crude  fibre,  340 

Crumner  dryer  for  beet  leaves,  106 
Cubic  meter,  341 

DAIRY  cows,.  California,  composi- 
tions of  rations  fed  to,  42 
composition  of  one  hun- 
dred rations  for,  40 
compositions   of  supposi- 
tions rations  for,  43,  44 
farms,  value  of  beet  pulp  on,  147 
mistake  in  starting  a,  38 
Dairying  based  on  maternity  of  the- 

cow,  23 

successful,  essentials  for,  31-33 
Defecation,  341 

Definitions  and    technical  considera- 
tions, 331-372 
Desiccation,  341 

Diffusion  battery,  preparation  of  mo- 
lasses cossettes  in,  259 
eossettes,  composition  of,  120,  121 

water  in,  149 
definition  of,  356 
hot,  facilitation  of  pressing  by, 

175, 176 
pulp,     experiments     in     feeding 

with,  152 

utilization,  American  exper- 
ience in,  210 

what  it  consists  in,  119,  120 
Diffusors,    Pfeiffer's    compressed    air 

mode  for  employing  the,  176 
Digestibility,  341-353 

and  nutritive  relations,  coefficient 

of,  334-336 
coefficient  of,  263 
factors  governing,  341-344 
of  ash,  353 

of  carbohydrates,  346-348 
of  crude  cellulose  in  clover,  351 

protein,  345,  346 
of  fatty  substances,  348,  319 
of  fibre,  349,  352 
of  nitrogen-free  extract  as  deter- 
mined by  water  ex- 
traction, 352. 


Digestibility  of  nitrogen-free  extract, 
crude  fibre  and  fat,  relation 
between,  351 

of  phosphoric  acid,  352,  353 
of  salt,  353 
varying,  of  coarse  fodder   when 

fed  with  roots,  348 
Digestion,  353-356 

influence    of   concentrated    feeds 

upon,  344r  345 

Digestive  nutrients  in  stated  amounts 
of  the  more  common  feeding  stuffs, 
319-330 

Dogs,  experiments  upon,  12 
Dried  cossettes,  356. 

residuum  cossettes,  173-209 
Dripping  and   straining  of  cossettes, 

121,  122 

Droppings,  manurial  value  of,  39 
Dryer.  Buttner  and  Meyer,  181-187 
"  Mackensen,  179,  180 
priae  for  a,  173 
steam,  189-191 
Thiesen,  191 
Dryers,  objectionable  features  of,  187, 

188 

Drying  beet  leaves,  104,  105 
plant,  cost  of  a,  188,  189 
utilization  of  lost  heat  for,  177 
waste  gases  for,  176 
Dry  matter,  definition  of,  357 

EISBEN,   rations   for   milch    cows, 
recommended  by,  153-155 
Emmerling's  method  of  estimating  the 
nutritive   value   of  a  forage  made 
with  molasses,  300 
Energy,  definition  of,  357 
Ether  extract,  357 
Excretion  and  nutrition,  362-366 
Experiments,  comparative,  69-79 

in  feeding  beets  to  cows  and  sheep 
in  the  United  States,  79-93 

FARM  animals,  table  for  computing 
rations  for,  319-330 
conveyance  of  cossettes  to,  140 
molasses   combinations    made    at 

the,  292,  293 

preparation  of  blood-molasses  fod- 
der on  the,  286 
Farms,  American,  question  of  labor 

on,  34,  35 

Fat  and  protein,   less  proportion  be- 
tween, 349 

starch,  factor  between,  54 
equivalents  for  100  parts  of,  53 


INDEX. 


379 


Fat,  formation  of,  theoretical  consider-  j  Feeding   regular,  importance  of,   for 

ations  relative  to  the,  9-12 
importance  of,  4 

influence  of  the  carbohydrates  on 
formation  of,  10- 
12 

temperature  of  the 
stable,    on    the 
formation  of,  10 
nutrients  that  supply  the  greater 

part  of,  9 
Fattening,  essentials  in,  16,  17 

idea  of  the  progress  of,  by  the 

droppings,  21 
sheep,  49-51 
steers,   essentials  for  success   in, 

20,21 

successful,  requisites  for,  17, 18 
Fatty  substances,  357-359 

digestibility  of,  348,  349 
Fay  and  Frederikson,  experiments  of, 

Feeding  according  to  records,  34 

advantages  of  dried  cossettes  in, 

194 
and  fattening  young  steers   and 

cattle,  9-21 

appliances  for  sheep,  46 
beet  leaf,  110,  111 

objections  to,  111,  112 
pulps,  dangers  of,  143,  144 
beets  to  cattle,  64-117 

cows  and  sheep,  experi- 
ments in,  in  the  United 
States,  79-93 

cattle  with  sugar  beets  and  resid- 
uum cossettes,  early  prejudice 
in  the  United  States  against, 
210-231 

continued,  with  cossettes,  148 
cows,  33-38 
difficulties  in,  33,  34 
dried    cossettes,    precautions    in, 

200-202 
early,  of  beet  leaves,  and  mistakes 

made  in,  96 

empirical  systems  of,  38 
excessive,  33 

fresh  and  siloed  sugar  beet  resid- 
uum, 118-172 
general,  sugar  for,  309,  310 
milch  cows,  21-31 
molasses    diluted    and    combined 

for,  254,  255 
for,  232-257 
manner  of,  239 
periods  of,  17,  18 


cows,  6 

regularity  in,  60 
sheep,  45-51 
space,  requisite,  and  other 

tials  for  sheep,  48,  49 
standards,  3,  4,  317,  318 
stuffs,  digestive  nutrients  in  stated 
amounts  of  the  more  com- 
mon, 319-330 
nitrogenous,   classification   of, 

362 

sugar  beet  leaves  and  tops,  93-117 
summer,  34 
time  of,  33 
value  of  beet  tops  for,  220 

cossettes,  141 
water  in,  35 

with  peat  molasses,  early  experi- 
ments with,  261,  262 
seed  stalks  and  seed,  117 
sugar,  301-316 
the  view  of  producing  milk 

and  butter,  147,  148 
the  view  to  butter  production, 

34 

working  animals,  theoretical  con- 
siderations of,  52-57 
Feeds  and  rations,  26 

concentrated,   influence  of,  upon 

digestion,  344,  345 
influence    of,    upon    butter    and 

milk,  26-28 
purchasing  of,  62,  63 
slightly    mildewed     or     tainted, 

utilization  of,  296 
sprinkled     with     molasses     and 
heated  under  pressure,  272,  273 
varied,  16 
Fermentation,  359 

in  the  preparation  of  rations,  68,69 
Fertilizer,  molasses  as  a,  296-298 
Fertilizers,  definition  of,  359 
Fibre,  digestibility  of,  349-352 
Fibrin,  359 

of  the  blood,  elimination  of  the, 

283,  284 

Flesh  formation,  theoretical  consider- 
ations, respecting,  11-14 
Flour,  dark  feeding,  digestible  nutri- 
ents of,  325 
low  grade,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

325,  326 
Fodder,    blood-molasses,    preparation 

of.  on  the  farm,  286 
coarse,  varying    digestibility    of, 
when  fed*  with  roots,  348 


380 


INDEX. 


Fodder  components,  coefficients  of  di- 
gestibility for,  342 
corn,  digestible  nutrients  of,  319 
green   corn   vs.    sugar  beets    for 

cattle  feed.  76-78 
maceration  of,  69 
soft  leaf,  102 
Fodders,   caloric  basis   of  estimation 

of,  62 

commercial  value  of,  61 
constituents  of,  2,  3 
empirical  modes  of  estimation  of 

value  of,  61 
mixing  cossettes  with  other,  152, 

153 
money  modes  of  calculating  the 

value  of,  61,  62 
purchase  of,  39 
soiling,   digestible    nutrients    of, 

319 

steaming  or  cooking  of,  65-68 
Food  consumption,  influence  of  water 

upon,  35,  36 

Forage  and  semi-sugar  beets,  compar- 
ative yield  of,  75 
definition  of,  359 
digestible,    diluted    followed    by 
concentrated  molasses  for,  255- 
257 

peat-molasses,  composition  of,  261 

Forages,  molasses,  composition  of,  251 

France,  comparative  experiments  in, 

between  beets  and  pulp,  69,  70 

composition  of  peat  used  in,  264 

possibilities   of   molasses   feeding 

111,^234 

practical  comparative  experiments 

in  feeding  molasses  in,  248-250 

surface  built  silos  as  used  in,  170 

Frederiksen's  method  of  preparing  a 

blood-molasses  feed,  282 
Friihling  and  Schultz,  results  obtained 

by,  in  pressing  cossettes,  124 
Fuel  value,  definition  of,  359 

GASES,  waste,  for  drying,  176 
Gastric  juice,  359 
Germany,  experiments  in  feeding  with 

molasses  in,  250,  251 
general  use  of  molasses  for  feeding 

in.  233 

results  of  beet  leaf  feeding  in,  114 
siloing  of  beet  leaves  in,  101 
what    residuum    cossette   feeding 

means  in,  156 
Germs,  definition  of,  359 
Gestation,  definition  of,  359 


Gird,  Mr.,  experiments  of,  215-217 
Glucose,  359 

amount  of.  that  disappears  in  the 

blood,  302 

and  rice-flour  molasses  combina- 
tion, 272 

Gluten  feed,  digestible  nutrients  of,  327 
meal,  digestible  nutrients  of,  327, 

328 

meals  and  gluten  feeds,  359,  360 
Glycogen,  360 
Glycose,  360 

Goats,  experiments  upon,  31 
Goessmann,  Dr.,  on  sugar  beet  feed- 
ing, 80 

Grafton   farm,  Alma,  Mich.,  experi- 
ments at  the,  226,  227 
Grain,  digestible  nutrients  of,  323,  324 
Gram,  the,  360 

Grandeau,  Prof.,  experiments  of,  in 
feeding  horses,  314- 
316 

experiments  of,  in  feed- 
ing horses  with  mo- 
lasses, 241-243 

Grand  Island,  Neb.,  experience  of,  222 
Grass,  Hungarian,  digestible  nutrients 

of.  320 
Grasses,  mixed,  and  clover,  digestible 

nutrients  of,  321 
Green  corn  and  sugar  beets,  plant  foods 

absorbed  by,  77 
fodder  vs.  sugar  beets  for  cattle 

feed,  76-78 
Grouven,  experiments  of*,  in   siloing 

leaves,  101 

Gullet,  definition  of  the,  360 
Gums,  360 

Guttmann,  A.,  on   molasses  feeding, 
272,  273 

TTADMEESLEBEN,  Germany,  ex- 
J--L     periments   in  feeding  sheep  at, 

207,  208 
Hay  and  dried  cossettes,  comparative 

analysis  of,  192 
straw,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

321-323 

straw  and  molasses,  275,  276 
Heat,  lost,  utilization  of,  for  drying, 

177,  178 

Hectare,  the,  360 
Heifers  and  bulls,  experimental  sugar 

rations  for,  313,  314 
Hemoglobin,  370 

jHenneberg  and    Stohmann's   experi- 
ments, 27 


INDEX.  381 


Henneberg's  experiments  upon  sheep, 

52 
Henry,  Prof.,   on  dairying  based  on 

maternity  of  the  cow,  23 
on  quarters  for  sheep,  48 
on  steer  fattening,  20,  21 
Herbivorous,  definition  of,  360 
Hermstadt,   early  suggestion   of  mo- 
lasses as  a  fodder  by,  232 
Herzfeld ,  analysis  of  sugar  beet  leaves 

and  tops  by,  94,  95 
Holstein  heifer  and  short-horn  cow, 
results   obtained   by  feeding   a,  on 
beets  and  on  potatoes,  89 
Hominv  chop,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

328 

Hoppe  on  molasses  feeding,  257 
Horses  and  mules,  rations  for,  151 

beneficial  effects  upon,  when  fed 

with  cossettes,  208,  209 
broken  down,  ration  for,  243 
experimental  rations  fed  to,  315 
fed  with  molasses,  work  performed 

by,  243 
feeding  of,  with  blood  molasses, 

284,  285 

molasses,  241-244 
sugar,  314-316 
peat-molasses  to,  266,  267 
results  of  rations  as  to  work  and 

weight  fed  to,  315 
Hungarian  grass,  digestible  nutrients 

of,  320 

hay,  digestible  nutrients  of,  321 
Hydraulic  pressing,  360 
Hydroscopic,  definition  of,  360 
Hygienic  conditions,  5 

TNTESTINAL    complications,    pos- 

-L     sible,  through  peat-molasses  feed- 
ing, 262,  263 

Intestines,  definition  of,  360 

Invert  sugar,  360 

Iowa,  experiments  in,  230,  231 

experiment   station,   experiments 
at  the,  88-90 

JAFFA  and  Leroy  Anderson  on  cos- 
sette   feeding   from   a   California 
point  of  view,  219,  220 
Jorss,    experiments    of,    in     feeding 
horses,  243 

KILOGKAM,  the,  360 
Kilogrammeter,  the,  360,  361 
Kilometer,  the.  361 


Kjeldahl   method  of    estimating   the 

total  nitrogen,  298 
Klusemann  press,  124-127 
Kiihn's  experiments,  10,  31 

LABOR  on  American  farms,  ques- 
tion of.  34,  35 
Lactic  acid  ,'361 

fermentation  of  cossettes,  161, 162 
Lallouette  press,  134-136 
Lamb  feeding,  45,  46 
Lambs,  death  rate  of,  48 

experiments  in  feeding,  92,  93 

sucking  of,  51 

value  of  potatoes   and   roots   for 

fattening,  90,  91 
water  drunk  by,  during  fattening, 

36 
Lauchstadt,  Germany,  experiments  at, 

250,  251 

Lead  in  sugar  beet  pulp,  214 
Leaf  composition,  relation  of  beet  to, 

115,  116 
feeding,  early,  and  mistakes  made 

in,  96 

fodder,  soft,  102 
keeping,  97,  98 

general  method  of,  97 
stripping,  95,  96 
Leaves  and  tops,  beet,  average  crop  of, 

96 
harvesting  the  crop 

of,  96,  97 
sugar  beet,  composition 

of,  94,  95 
feeding  of,  93- 

117 
beet,  acidulated,  103,  104 

and  other  substances  in  silo, 

100,  101 

compressing  of.  in  silos,  98 
faulty  siloing  of,  100 
transformation  of,  in  silos  and 

losses,  99,  100 
siloed  beet,  analysis  of,  99 

composition  of,  98 
Leduc's  beet  steaming  pits,  66-68 
Legrand,  Simon,  experiments  by,  in 

feeding  diffusion  pulp,  152 
Legumin.  361 
Lehmann's  mode  of  washing   leaves, 

102,  103 
Levulose,  361 
Liebscher,  experience  of,  166 

researches  of,  163 
Lime,  361 

addition  of,  to  cossettes,  141,  142 


382 


INDEX. 


Lime,  influence  of,  upon  the  cellular 

texture,  175 

mixing  of,  with  cossettes,  138 
phosphate,  361 
Linseed  meal,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

328 

new  process,  361 
old  process,  367 
Liter,  the,  361 
Live  stock,  rations  for,  209 

weight,  cost  of,  per  pound,  19 
Lymph,  361 

MACEKATION  of  fodder,  69 
Mackensen  dryer,  179,  180 
Maercker  and  Morgen.  researches  of, 

194 
on  early  chemical  changes  during 

siloing,  163 

on  feeding  all  the  molasses  from 

a  given  area  of  land,  294,  295 

Maercker' s  method  of  facilitating  cos- 

sette  pressing,  137 
Malt  sprouts,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

326,  327 
Mangels  and  sugar  beets  compared,  70- 

74 
plant  food  taken 

up  by,  73 

silage  and  beets,  comparative  feed- 
ing value  of,  for  cows,  92 
Manoury  method   of  facilitating  cos- 

sette  pressing,  137,  138 
Manure,  value  of  beet  tops  for,  220,  221 
Manurial  value  of  droppings,  39 
Meals,  order  of,  5 
Mehay  mode  of  preparing  acidulated 

beet  leaves,  103,  104 
Meter,  the,  361 
Methane,  361 

Michigan,  cossette  drying  in,  228,  229 
State  College  Experiment  Station, 

experiments  at  the,  226-229 
Microbes  in  rotten  pulp,  146 

means  of  destroying,  144,  145 
Micro-organisms,  361 
Milch  cow  feeding,  21-31 

general    remarks    on, 

21-23 
cows,  calculation  of  rations   for, 

38-45 
comparison  of  corn  silage  and 

roots  for,  81,  82 
composition  of  one  hundred 

rations  for,  40 

experiments    in    feeding  of, 
with  liquid  molasses,  256 


Milch  cows,  feeding  of,  with  molasses, 

239-241 

peat-molasses  to,  267 
rations  for,  153-155 
sorts  of,  23,  24 

Milk  and  butter,  feeding  with  the  view 

of  producing,  147, 148 

influence  of  feeds  upon, 

26-28 
milking,  considerations  about, 

24,  25 
weight  of  cows,  influence  of 

water  in  ration  on,  196 
average  daily  yield  of,  with  and 

without  beets  in  ration,  86 
comparative    analyses    of,    when 
different  beet  products  were  fed, 
203 

cream    and    butter,   comparative 
value  of  sugar  beets  and  pota- 
toes in  the  production  of.  88-90 
difference    in    the    quantity   and 

composition  of,  24 
effect  of  albumin  on,  29 
elaboration   of,   from    the   colos- 
trum, 28,  29 
experiments  in  the  fermentation 

of,  241 
flavor  of,  28 
flow,  influence  of  the  temperature 

of  water  on,  36,  37 
of,  30,  31 
from  cows  fed  on  fresh  or  dried 

cossettes,  composition  of,  202 
glands,  effect  of  protein  on,  29 
globules,  29 

influence  of  sugar  upon,  314 
molasses  favorable  to  the  produc- 
tion of,  240,  241 
production,  increase  in,  by  soured 

cossettes,  154 

quantity  and  quality  of,  29 
relative  values  of  silage  and  field 
beets  in  the  production  of,  83-88 
satisfactory  secretion  of,  29 
sugars,  29 

theoretical  considerations  28-31 
total  produced  and  gain  and  loss 
in  weight,  by  silage  and  beets, 

85 

true  basis  for  the  sale  of,  24,  25 
Mill  products,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

324-326 
Mineral  elements,  influence  of,  upon 

the  flow  of  milk,  27,  28 
substances  in  dried  cossettes,  197 
Minnesota,  experiments  in,  230 


INDEX. 


383 


Moecker    agronomic  station,   experi- 
ments at  the,  263 
Molasses,  albumin   not  contained  in, 

236 
and  brewers'  grains,  277,  278 

by-fodder,  facilitation  of  the 
absorption  of  the,  by  boil- 
ing water,  271.  272  " 
dried  cossette  combinations, 
analyses  of.  260 
mixture  of,  258, 260 
oat  flour  combination,  268 
palm  oil  combinations,  278- 

280 

analyses  of,  279 
potato  pulp,  277 
straw  combination,  276,  277 
sugar,   comparison    between, 

312 

antiseptic  action  of,  281 
beneficial  effects  of,  248 
cakes,  Vaury'  s,  composition  of,  292 
combinations,  keeping  of.  290 
made  at  the  farm,  292,  293 
varied.  251,  252 
composition  of,  236 
cossette  combination,  258-300 

average    composition 

of,  259.  260 
preparation   of,   in   diffusion 

battery,  259 
Wusterhagen's    method      of 

preparing,  258 
diluted  and  combined  for  feeding, 

254,  255 
followed  by  concentrated,  for 

digestible  forage.  255-257 
dishonest  dealings  in,  289,  290 
feeding,    A.    Guttmann   on,  272, 

273 
all  the,  from  a  given  area  of 

land.  294,  295 
desirable  limits  in,  252.  253 
early  experiments  in.  232,  233 
experiments  in,  in  Germany, 

250,  251 
of  Ed.  T.  Waters  with, 

308,  309 

horses  with,  241-244 
increasing   popularity  of,  in 
Austro-Hungary.  233,  234 
milch  cows  with,  239-241 
pernicious  effects  of,  247,  248 
pigs  with,  246,  247 
possibilities  of,  in  France,  234 
sheep  with,  244 
steers  with,  244-246 


Molasses  feeds,  analysis  of,  298-300 
classification  of.  254 
sprinkled   with,   and  heated 

under  pressure,  272,  273 
fodder,  German   patent   for  pre- 
paring, 271,  272 
forage  made  at  the  factory,  290- 

292 
forages,  composition  of,  251 

rivalry  among  manufacturers 

of,  235,  236 
for  feeding,  232-257 
general    use   of.   for    feeding,   in 

Germany,  233 
influence  of,  on  the  organism  of 

animals,  248 
upon  the  production  of 

milk.  240,  241 
liquid,    experiments    in    feeding 

milch  cows  with,  256,  257 
manner  of  feeding,  239 
mixing  appliances,  293,  294 

of,  with  pulp,  167 
money  value  of,  253.  254,  285 
nutritive  value  of,  248 
oxen  fattened  with.  249 
percentage,  estimation  of.  299 
physiological  influences  of,  241 
practical  comparative  experiments 
in  feeding  of,  in  France,  248- 
250 

rations,  various,  analysis  of,  294 
varying  for  different  animals, 

253 
requisite     keeping    qualities    of, 

288,  289 

solid,  preparation  of,  288 
use  of,  as  a  fertilizer,  296-298 
utilization  in  the  United   States, 

importance  of,  235 
of,  one  of  the  essentials   of 
profitable    sugar     making, 

various  uses  of,  295 
Money  value  of  molasses,  253,  254 
Morgen,  experiments  by,  165 

investigations  of,  on  the  digesti- 
bility of  cossettes.  199,  200 
researches  of,  161,  162 
Moss  molasses  combination,  270,  271 
Mucous,  definition  of.  361 
Mules  and  horses,  rations  for,  151 
Miiller's  method  of  analyzing  molasses 

feeds,  299,  300 
facilitating    cossette 
pressing,  137 


384 


INDEX. 


NAKROW  ration,  definition  of,  361 
Natanson's  method  of  preparing 

molasses  cossettes,  259 
Nebraska,  feeding  beet  pulps  in,  221- 

226 

New  Mexico,  experiments  in,  230 
New  process  linseed  meal,  361 
New  York,  experiments  in,  229,  230 
Nicholson,  Prof.,  on  pulp  feeding,  223 
Nitrates,  366 
Nitrogen-free  extract,  366 

crude  fibre  and  fat, 
relation  between 
digestibility  of, 
351 

digestibility    of,    as 

determined     b  y 

water  extraction, 

352 

Kjeldahl's  method  of  estimating, 

298 
Nitrogenous  elements  of  the  animal's 

body,  337,  338 

feeding  stuffs,  classification  of,  362 
substances,  transformation  of,  3 
Non-nitrogenous,  definition  of,  366 

elements    of     the     animal's 

body,  338-340 

Non-sugar,  definition  of,  367 
Nutrients,  digestible,  in  stated  amounts 
of  the  more  common  feeding  stuffs, 
319  330 

Nutrition  and  excretion,  362-366 
Nutritive  ratio,  367 

OAT-FLOUR  and  molasses  combina- 
tion, 268 

Oat  straw,  digestible  nutrients  of,  324 
Oats  and  peas,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

319 

digestible  nutrients  of,  324 
for  sheep,  50 
Ohio  experiment  station,  experiments 

in  feeding  at  the,  83-86 
Oil  cake,  use  of  in  feeding,  early  op- 
position to,  307 
meal,  367 

Old  process  linseed  meal,  367 
Omasom,  the,  367 
Oregon,  experiments  in,  230 
Organic  matter,  definition  of,  367 
Osmose,  367 
Osmotic  action,  367 
Osteomalacia,  146 
Ox,  absorption  of  water  by  an,  149 
Oxalic  acid,  367 

influence  of,  112-114 


Oxalic   acid,  loss  of,  in  drying  beet 

leaves,  108 
Oxen  and  cows,  working,  56,  57 

experimental  rations  fed  to,  204 
fattening  of.  with  molasses,  249 
working,  feeding  of  with  molasses, 

244-246 

peat-molasses  to,  267 
rations  for,  150,  151,  209 
Oxnard,  experiments  at,  217,  218 

PALM   oil   and    molasses  combina- 
tions, 278-280 
and  molasses  combinations, 

analyses  of.  279 
meal  and  molasses,  forage 

of,  243 
Paunch,  367 
Pea  meal,  368 
Peanut    shell    molasses  combination, 

273-275 
ration  of,  274 

shells  combined  with  residuum 
beet  molasses,  composition 
of,  274 

composition  of,  273,  274 
Pearl    farm,    Mich.,    experiments    at 

the,  227.  228 
Peas  and  barley,  digestible  nutrients 

of,  319 
oats,  digestible   nutrients  of, 

319 

digestible  nutrients  of,  324 
Peat  and  molasses,  superiority  of,  to 

bran  and  molasses,  262 
comparison  of  bran  with,  270 
composition  of,  264 
digestibility  of.  263,  264 
-molasses    combinations,    varied, 

266 

combination.  Toury,  compo- 
sition of,  265 
conclusions  as  to  the  value  of, 

for  feeding,  264-266 
difference  in  opinion  as  to  the 

value  of,  for  feeding,  264 
feeding,    early     experiments 

with,  261,  262 
of,  to  horses,  266,  267 
of,  to  milch  cows,  267 
possible   intestinal   com- 
plications       through, 
262,  263 
working  oxen  and  cattle 

with,  267 

forage,  composition  of.  261 
keeping  qualities  of,  290 


INDEX. 


385 


Peat-molasses,  pigs  fed  with,  268 
Pea-vine  straw,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

322 

Pectic  substances,  368 
Pellet  and  Lelavandier  on  silos,  157 
Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station,  ex- 
periments at  the,  91,  92 
Pentosanes,  368 
Peptones,  368 

Petermann  on  chemical  changes  dur- 
ing prolonged  siloing,  164 
Petry-Hecking  dryer,  180,  181 
Pfeiffer  compressed  air,  mode  for  em- 
ploying the  dift'usors,  176 
Phosphates,  368 

precipitated,  addition  of,  to  ration, 

247 
Phosphoric  acid .  368 

addition  of,  to  cossettes, 

141,  142 

digestibility  of,  352,  353 
Pigs,  feeding  of,  with  blood  molasses, 

284,  285 

molasses.  246,247 
seed     stalks    and 

seed,  117 

peat-molasses  to.  268 
sugar  to,  311,  312 
opinions  respecting  sugar  for,  312 
ration  of,  151,  152 
Plant  food  taken  up  by  mangels  and 

sugar  beets,  73 
foods,  368 

absorbed  by  sugar  beets  and 

green  corn,  77 

Postelt's  mode  of  obtaining  a  soft  fod- 
der, 102 

Potassic  salts,  370 

Potatoes   and    beets,   comparison   be- 
tween, 88-90 
roots,  value  of,  for  fat- 
tening lambs.  90,  91 
sugar  beets,  comparative 
value   of,  in  the   pro- 
duction of  milk,  cream 
and  butter,  88-90 
beets   and   mangels,   comparative 
results    obtained     by     feeding 
lambs  with,  91 
digestible  nutrients  of.  320 
pulp  and  molasses,  277 
pulp  of,  210 

results  obtained  by  feeding  a  short- 
horn cow  and  a  Holstein  heifer 
on,  89 

Press,  Bergreen,  131-134 
cone  cossette,  129-131 


Press,  Klusemann,  124-127 
Lallouette.  134-136 
Selwig  and  Lange,  127-129 
Pressed  cossettes,  370 
Presses,  cossette,  122 
Proebent's   experiments  in  beet   leaf 

drying,  109 
Proteids,  370 
Protein,  368-370 

amount  of,  decomposed  from  the 

body,  12, 13 
and  fat,  best  proportion  between, 

349 

co-efficient  of  digestibility  of,  346 
consumption,  influence  of  water 

upon,  36 

crude,  digestibility  of,  345,  346 
digestible,  amount  of,  needed,  30 

in  molasses,  236 
effect  of  on  the  milk  glands,  29 
mechanical  equivalent  of  one  kilo- 
gram of,  55 
Pulp  and  beets  compared,  69,  70 

combination  in  the  animal  ration, 

7.8 
feeding,    successful     introduction 

of,  in  the  United  States,  215 
malady,  146 

mixing  of,  with  molasses,  167 
or  cossette  contracts,  138,  139 
Pulps,  370 

rotten,  microbes  in,  146 
saturation     of,      with      alcoholic 

vapors,  144 
Putrefaction,  loss  by,  161 

RADIATION,  370 
Eamm.  investigations  of,  in  feed- 
ing   milch   cows   with    liquid 
molasses,  256,  257 
Ration,  370 

chest  measurements  for  weight  of, 

58 

for  an  animal  doing  work,  56,  57 
bulls,  151 
pigs.  lol.  152 
working  animals,  6 
formula  for  composing  a,  55,  56 
in  summer,  60 

manner  of  calculating  a,  43-45 
narrow,  361 
standard,  adopted,  41 
variable,  5 
variation  in.  59,  60 
with  and  without  beets,  average 
dailv  yield  of  milk,  produced 
by,  86 


386 


INDEX. 


Rations  and  feeds,  26 
appetizing,  60 
cost  of,  63 

distribution  of,  60.  61 
excessively  diluted,  objections  to, 

oV 

experimental,  fed  to  cows,  205,  206 
fed  to  horses,  315 
oxen,  204 
sheep,  207,  208 
results  of,  205 
sugar,  for  bulls  and  heifers, 

313,  314 
faulty,  41,  42 
fed   to   horses,    results   of,   as   to 

work  and  weight,  315 
fermentation   in   the   preparation  i 

of,  68,  69 

for  farm  animals,  table  for  com- 
puting, 319-330 
live  stock,  209 
milch  cows,  153-155 
mules  and  horses,  151 
sheep,  151 

stall-fed  animals,  G.  7 
working  oxen.  150,  151 
general,  of  blood-molasses,  286 
in  general,  57-61 
molasses,  analyses  of,  294 
rules  for,  proposed   by  the  New  j 
York  Agricultural  Experiment  j 
Station.  63 

special  tables  for  computing,  41 
standard.  58,  59 
basis  of,  58,  59 
variation  in,  59 
suppositions,  for  dairy  cows,  com- 
positions of,  43,  44 
varied  by  addition  of  different  beet  j 
products,  comparative  nutritive 
values  of.  203 

varying  molasses  for  different  ani- 
mals. 253 
Recticulum.  370 
Red   clover   hay,  digestible  nutrients  i 

of,  322 

Rennet  or  abomasom,  370 
Residuum,  370 

cossettes,  digestibility  of,  155 

siloing  of.  156-172 
dried,  composition  and  appearance 

of,  191 

importance  of  keeping  clean,  140 
mixing  of  the,  with  an  antiseptic, 

167 

Roots  and  corn  silage  for  milch  cows, 
comparison  of,  81,  85 


Roots  and  potatoes,  value  of,  for  fat- 
tening lambs,  90,  91 
tubers,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

320,  321 
varying    digestibility    of    coarse 

fodder  when  fed  whh,  348 
Roughage.  370 

combination  of,  with  concentrates, 

22 

Ruminants,  definition  of,  370 
Rutabaga  and  sugar  beet,  comparative 

analysis  of  a,  74 

comparison  of  sugar  beets  with,  74 
Rye  bran,  digestible  nutrients  of,  326 
digestible  nutrients  of,  323 

SACCHAROSE,  definition  of,  370 
Saliva,  definition  of,  370 
Salt.  37,  38 

beneficial  effect  of,  27.  28 
common,    combination    of,    with 

pulps,  144,  145 
mixing  of,  with  pulp,  147 
digestibility  of,  353 
importance  of.  4 
in  steer  feeding,  19,  20 
Schraeder     apparatus    for    preparing 

blood-molasses  fodder,  286 
Scrub    cattle,    feeding    of,    with    cos- 
settes. 8 

Scums,  definition  of.  371 
Seed    stalks   and    seed    beet,   feeding 

with,  117 

Selwig  and  Lange  press,  127-129 
Semi-sugar  beet,  75 
Serum,  definition  of,  371 
Sesame  and  peanut-molasses  combina- 
tion, composition  of.  274,  275 
Shearing  of  sheep,  influence  of,  upon 

milk,  46,  47 

Sheep  and  cows,  experiments  in  feed- 
ing   beets    to,   in    the    United 
States.  79  93 
characteristics,  47,  48 
classification  of,  for  fattening,  49 
comparative  increase  in  weight  of, 
fed   with    tankard   and    sugar- 
beets.  72 
difference  in  fodder  to  be  given 

to,  50 

experimental  rations  fed  to,  207 
experiments  in  feeding,  82,  83 

of,    with     beet 

leaves,  115 
upon, 70 
with,  195 
fattening,  49-51 


INDEX. 


387 


Sheep,  fattening  of,  with  beet  cossettes, 

142 
feeding,  45-51 

appliances.  46 

general  considerations  of,  45. 

46 

of,  with  molasses,  244 
grazing.  49 

Henneberg's  experiments  upon,  52 
oats  for,  50 

raising  in  the  United  States,  im- 
pulse to,  by  beet  pulp  utiliza- 
tion, 45 

rations  for.  151.  209 
relative  value  of  sugar-beets  for  91 
requisite  feeding  space  and  other 

essentials  for.  48.  49 
selection,  importance  of.  49 
shearing    of,    influence   of,   upon 

milk,  46,  47 
time  for  birth  of,  30 
Shelter,  31 
Shipping  facilities,  needs  for.  19 

fattened  steers,  preparations  for, 

19,  20 

Short-horn  cow  and  Holstein  heifer, 
results   obtained   by  feeding   a,  on 
beets  and  on  potatoes.  89 
Siekel's  method  of  facilitating  cossette 

pressing.  137 

Silage  and  beets,  comparison  as  to  the 

cost  of  feeding  with.  §7 

total  milk  produced,  and 

gain  and  loss  in  weight 

by,  85 

field  beets,  relative  values  of, 
in  the  production  of  milk, 
83-88 
beets   and    mangels,   comparative 

feeding  value  of,  for  cows.  92 
vs.  beets,  showing  feed  refused,  84 
Silo,  beet  leaves  and  other  substances 

in.  100,  101 
building  a,  157 
k*  dug-out"  type  of.  170 
formed  by  excavating  hillside,  169 
wood  built.  169 
Siloed  and  dried  cossettes,  comparison 

between,  192-194 
beet  leaves,  analysis  of,  99 
composition  of,  98 

Siloing,  early  chemical  changes  dur- 
ing, 163 

faulty,  of  beet  leaves.  100 
of  beet  leaves  in  Germany.  101 
one  acre  of  corn,  cost  of,  87 
precautionary  measures  in,  166 


Siloing,  prolonged,  chemical  changes 

during,  164 

residuum  cossettes,  156-172 
surface,  167-171 
transformation  of  cossettes  during, 

160-167 

Silos,  compressing  leaves  in,  98 
definition  of,  371 
dimensions  of,  157 
elongated,  157 
filled,  temperature  in,  162 
filling  of,  with  beet  cossettes,  159, 

160 

for  reducing  cossettes,  156-159 
lined  with  brick,  157 
paving  the  bottom  of,  158 
principal  centers  for  change  in,  163 
surface  built,  as  used  in  France, 

170 
transformation  of  leaves   in   and 

losses.  99,  100 
underground.  171,  172 
Skim  milk,  digestible  nutrients  of,  330 
Sodic  chlorid,  371 
Soiling  fodder,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

319 

Sour  cossettes,  371 
Soxhlet's  experiments,  15 
Stable  feeding  and  exercise,  34 

influence   of  the   temperature  of 
the,  on  the  formation  of  fat,  10 
temperature  of,  5,  31 
Stables,  32 

Stalks  of  beet  seed,  371 
Stall-fed  animals,  rations  for,  6,  7 
Stall-feeding,  negative  results  of,  7 
Standard  Cattle  Co.,  Ames,  ^eh. .  state- 
ment by  the,  222,  223-225 
ration  adopted,  41 
rations.  58,  59 

basis  of,  58,  59 
variation  in,  59 
Starch,  371 

and  fat,  factor  between   54 
-combustion  in  the  body,  heat  re- 
quired for,  149 
Steam  dryer.  189-191 
drying.  189-191 

Steaming  or  cooking  of  fodders,  65-68 
process,  combined  with  fermenta- 
tion, 66-68 
Steer  fattening,  essentials  for  success 

in,  20,  21 
feeding,  requisites  for  success  in, 

salt  in,  19,  20 
Steers,  daily  weighing  of,  16 


388 


INDEX. 


Steers,  fattened,  preparations  for  ship- 
ping, 19,  20 

feeding  and  fattening  of,  with  beet 
residuum  in  western  States, 
14 

of,  with  molasses,  244-246 
kinds  of,  to  feed,  18,  19 
rations  for,  209 

relative  value  of  sugar  beets  for,  91 
young,   and    cattle    feeding    and 

fattening,  9-21 
Stimulants,  371 
Stohmann's  experiments,  13 
Straw  and  hay,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

321-323 
molasses    combination,    276, 

277 

mixing  cossettes  with,  166 
Stutzer,  analysis  of  siloed  beet  leaves 

by,  99 

Sucrose,  371,  372 

Sugar  and   molasses,   comparison   be- 
tween, 312 
beet   and    rutabaga,  comparative 

analysis  of  a,  74 
cossettes,  value  of,  139,  140 
leaves  and  tops,  composition 

of,  94,  95 
feeding  of,  93- 

117 
digestible    nutrients    of, 

329 
pulp,  digestible  nutrients  of, 

lead  in,  214 

residuum,  advantages  of,  17 
cossettes,  early   appreci- 
ation of  the  value  of, 
118 
fresh  and  siloed,  feeding 

of,  118-172 
beets  and  green  corn,  plant  foods 

absorbed  by,  77 
mangels   compared,   70- 

74 

potatoes,       comparative 
value  of,  in  the   pro- 
duction of  milk,  cream 
and  butter,  88-90 
residuum,    early    preju- 
dice   in     the    United 
States  against  feeding 
cattle  with,  210-231 
tankard  compared,  71 
compared  with  rutabagas,  74 
more   profitable   than  clover 
hay  for  cattle  feeding,  79 


Sugar  beets,  relative  value  of,  for  steers 

and  sheep,  91 
combinations,  special,  312 
destruction  of,  in  the  blood,  301, 

302 

effect  of,  on  animals,  309 
feeding,   advantages    of,    to    the 

breeder,  303 
digestive    complications   due 

to,  310 

early  arguments  for,  304 
economic    considerations   of, 

312,  313 

European,  difficulties  to  con- 
tend with  in,  315 
experiments  in,  305,  306 
horses  with,  314-316 
of,  to  calves,  310,  311 

cattle  in   the  early  part 
of  last  century,  303-309 
pigs,  311,  312 

practical  suggestions  in  early 
discussions  on ,  306- 
309 

tests  of,  upon  men,  302 
with,  301-316 

for  general  feeding,  309,  310 
for  pigs,  opinions  respecting,  312 
influence  of.  upon  milk,  314 
left  in  the  residuum,  121 
making,  profitable,  utilization  of 
molasses  one  of  the  essentials 
of,  234 
manufacturer,  main  object  of  the, 

120 
rations,   experimental,   for    bulls 

and  heifers,  313,  314 
Sugars,  372 

Sulphuric  acid,  anhydrous,  332 
Summer  feeding,  34 
Surface  siloing,  167-171 
Swine,  feeding  of,  with  molasses,  250 

TABLE  for  computing   rations   for 
farm  animals,  319-330 
Tables  for  computing  rations,  41 
Tankard  and  sugar  beets,  comparative 
increase  in 
weight    of 
sheep    fed 
with,  72 
comparison    of, 

71 

Thiesen  dryer,  191 
Timothy,  digestible  nutrients  of,  321 
Toury  peat-molasses  combination,  com- 
position of,  265 


INDEX. 


389 


Tubers  and  roots,  digestible  nutrients 
of,  320,  321 

UDDER,  development  of,  29 
United  States,  early  prejudice  in 
the,  against  feeding 
cattle  with  sugar 
beets  and  residuum 
cossettes,  210-231 

experiments  in  feeding 
beets  to  cows  and 
sheep  in  the,  79-93 

importance  of  molasses 
utilization  in  the, 255 

impulse  by  beet-pulp 
utilization  to  sheep 
raising  in  the,  45 

successful  introduction 
of  pulp   feeding   in 
the,  215 
Utah,  experiments  in,  230 

T7AURY  molasses  cakes,  composition 
T        of,  292 

wheat  flour  molasses  combination, 

287,  288 

Yogel,  experiments  by,  on  sheep,  195 
Voit's  experiments,  52 
Volkmann,  researches  of,  195 

WALTER  and  Gerber,  experiments 
in  the  fermentation  of  milk  by, 
241 

Washing  beet  leaves,  102,  103 
Water,  16 

absorption  of,  by  an  ox,  149 
drunk  and  its  influence,  36,  37 
heat    needed    to    evaporate, 

194-196 

effect  of,  when  given  in  excess,  37 
excess  of,  in  residuum,  121 
good,  essentials  of,  37 
in  beet  pulps,  149,  150 
in  feeding,  35 


Water  in  ration,  influence  of,  on  milk 

and  weight  of  cows,  196 
influence  of  the  temperature  of,  on 

the  flow  of  milk,  36,  37 
of.   upon  food   consumption, 

35,36 
protein  consumption, 

36 

the  milk  flow,  36 
loss  of,  per  diem,  37 
role  of,  4,  5 
Waters,  Ed.  T.,  experiments  of,  with 

molasses  feeding,  308,  309 
Watson ville,  Cal.,  experiments  at,  218 
Weisbeck,  experiments  of,  195,  196 
Weiske's  experiments,  31 
Werner  and  Pfleiderer's  molasses-mix- 
ing appliance,  293 
Wheat  bran,  372 

digestible  nutrients  of,  325 
-molasses,    comparison    of, 

with  corn  germs,  269 
digestible  nutrients  of.  323 
flour-molasses     combination, 

Vaury's,  287,  288 
middlings,  372 

digestible  nutrients  of,  325 
molasses  combination,  268,  269 
residuums,  372 

straw,  digestible  nutrients  of,  324 
Wide  ratio,  372 

Wisconsin  experiment  station,  experi- 
ments in  feeding  sheep  at  the,  82, 83 
Wolff  on  flow  of  milk.  30,  31 
!  Wolff's  tables,  objections  to,  57 
Wool  and  beet  cossettes,  47 
Working  animals,  ration  for,  6 

theoretical  consideration 

of  feeding,  52-57 
oxen  and  cows,  56,  57 
Wusterhagen   dryer  for   beet   leaves, 

107-109 

Wusterhagen' s  method   of  preparing 
molasses  cossettes,  258 


14  DAY  USE 

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